THE ENDLESS FRONTIER

A Report to the President

by

Vannevar Bush

Direct lie

Office of Scient^ Research and Depehpment

July 1945

UiAei Scsies GcrvermEkei]^ PriimjQts O&ce
Wssiiijagton : 1945

TABLE OF CONTENTS

l^tiapter Pose

XiCtter of Trojismittal. t

President Roosevelt Letter vii

Summary of the Report.. 1

1. Introduction:

Scientific Progress is Essential - 5

Science is a Proper Concern of Co verimiept, 6

Government Relations to Science— Past and F uture- 6

Freedoni of Inquiry Must be I^eserved 7

2. The War Against Disease:

In War .8

In Peace,,, *8

Unsolved Problems 8

Broad and Basic Studies N eeded 9

Coordinated Attack on Special Problems, 9

Action is N ecessary 10

3. Science and the Public Welfare:

Relation to National Security 12

Science and Jobs 1. 13

The Importance of Basic Research 13

Centers of Basic Research • 14

Research Within the Government 15

Industrial Research 16

International Exchan^ of Scientific Information. . 16

The Special Need for federal Support 17

The Cost of a Program 17

4. Renewal of our Scientific Talent:

Nature of the Problem 18

A Note of Warning 18

The Wartime Deficit 18

Improve the Quality 19

Remove the Barriers 20"

The Generation in Uniform Must Not be Lost 20

A Program 20

A Problem of Scientific RTOonversion:

EflPects of Mobilization of Science for War 22

Security Restrictions Should be Lifted Promptly. . 22

Need for Coordination 23

A Board to Control Release 23

Publication Should be Encouraged 23

The Means to the End:

N ew Responsibiliti^ for Government 25

The Mechanism 25

Five Fundamentals — 26

Chapter Pase

6. The Means to the End— Continued.

Military Research 27

Nationw Research Foundation 28

I. Purposes.. 28

11. Members 28

III. Organization 29

IV. Functions 29

V. Patent Policy 31

VI. Special Authority 32

VII. Budget 33

.Action by Congress 33

Appendices

1. Committees Consulted 37

2. R^^rt of the Medical Advisory Committee, Dr. W. W.

Palmar, Chairman 40

3. Report of the Committee on Science and the Public

Wdfare, Dr. Isaiah Bowman, Chaimoan 65

4. Report of the Committee on DiscoTery and Develop-

mott of Sdentific Talent, Mr. Henry Allen Moe,
Ouuiman 128

5. BMwrt of the Committee on Publication of Scientific

Informaiicm, Dr. Irvin ^evrart, Chairman 178

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Office of Scieotific Research and Development
1530 P Street, NW*

Washington 25, D. C.

July 5, 1945.

Dear Mr. President:

In a letter dated November 17, 1944, President Roosevelt requested
my recommendations on the following points:

(1) What can be done, consistent with military security, and with
the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the
world as soon as possible the contributions which have been made
during our war effort to scientific knowledge?

(2) With particular reference to the war of science against disease,
what can be done now to organize a program for continuing in the
future the work which has been done in medicine and related science?

(3) What can the Government do now and in the future to aid
research activities by public and private organizations?

(4) Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and
developing scientific talent in American youth so that the continuing
future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a levd
comparable to what has been done during the war?

It is dear from Pr^dmt Roosevelt’s letter that in speaking of
science he had in mind the natural sciences, including biology and
medicine, and I have so interpreted his questions. Pregreas in other
fields, such as the social sciences and the humanities, is likewise
im|>ortant; but the program for science presented in my report
warrants immediate attention.

In seeking answers to President Roosevelt’s questions I have h^
the assistance of distinguished committees specially qualified to advise
in respect to these subjects. The committees have given these
matters the serious attention they deserve; indeed, they have regarded
this as an opportunity to participate in shaping the policy of the
coun^ with reference to scientific r^earch. They have had many
meeting and have submit!^ formal reports. I have b^n in dose
touch with the work of the committees and with their members
thron^ont. I have examined al of the data they a^mbled and the
suggmtions tiiey submitted on the points raised in Prudent Boose-

It’s letter.

Although the report which I submit herewith is my own, the facts,
oondusions, and rTOomm@adatk>ns are based on the findings of the
committee which have studied these questions. Since my refwrt is
nec^^wraly biid, I am indiniffig as ^pendie^ the fuB reporte of tiie
committees.

A single meehanisni for implementing the recommendations of the
st*veral committers is essential. In proposing such a mechanism I
hare departed somewhat from the specific recommendations of the
eommittees, but I ha%"e since been assured that the plan I am proposing
is fully acceptable to the committee members.

The pioneer spirit is still vigorous within this nation. Science
offers a largely unexplored hinterland for the pioneer who has the tools
for his tasK. The rewards of sndh exploration both for the Nation
and the individnd are great. Scientific progress is ohe essential key
to our security as a nation, to our better health, to more jobs, to a
higher skyad^ of living, and to our cultural progress.

Respectfully yours,

' (s) V. Bush, Director.
The Presibeot of the United StjItes,

The White House,

Washhigtoti, D. C.

PRESIDENT ROOSEVELTS LETTER

The White House
Washington, D. C.

November 17, 19U

Dear Dr. Bush: The Office of Scientific Research and Develop*
ment, of which you are the Director, represents a unique experiment
of team-work and cooperation in coordinating scientific research and
in applying existing sciratific knowledge to the solution of the technical
problems paramount in war. Its work has been conducted in the
utmost secrecy and carried on without public recognition of any kind:
but its tangible results can be found in the communiques coming in
from the batUefronts all over the world. Some day the full story of its
achievements can be told.

There is, however, no reason why the lessons to be found in this
pperiment cannot be profitably employed in times of peace. The
information, the techniques, and the research experience developed
by the Office of Scientific Research and Development and by the
thousands of scientists in the universities and in private industry,
should be used in the daja of peace ahead for the improvement of the
national health, the creation of new enterprises bringing new jobs, and
the betterment of the national standard of living.

It is with that objective in mind that I would like to have your
recommendations on the following four major points:

First: What can be done, consistent with military security, and with
the prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the
world as soon as possible the contributions which have been made
during our war efltort to scientific knowdedge?

The diffusion of such knovrledge shoiud help us stimulate new
enterprises, provide jobs for our returning servicemen and other
workers, and make possible great strides for the improvement of the
national well-being.

Second: With particular reference to the war of science against
disease, what can be done now to organize a program for continuing
in the future the work which has been done in medicine and related
science?

The fact that the annual deaths in this country from one or two
diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of lives l(»t by us
in battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we owe
future generations.

Third: What can the Government do now and in the future to aid
research activiti^ by public and private oigmizations? The proper
roles of public and of private research, and their interrdation, should be
carefully considered.

Fowih: Can an effective pri^ram be proposed for discovmi^ and
devdoping sdentific talent in Ammcan youth so that the continuing

VI

fttlure of scientific research in this country may be assured on a level
comparmble to what has been done during the war?

New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they are pioneered
with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have waged
this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a
fullex and more fruitful life.

I hope that, after such consultation as you may deem advisable with
your a^ciates and othem, you can let me have your considered
judgment on th»e matters as soon as convenient — reporting on each
when you are ready, rather than waiting for completion of your

studi« in all*

Very sincerely yours,

(s) Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Dr. Vannevar Bush,

Office of Scientific Research and Development,

Wtehingion, D. C.

SCIENCE— THE ENDLESS FRONTIER

“New frontiers of the mind are before tis, and
if they are {pioneered with the same vision, bold-
ness, and drive with which we have wraged this
war we can create a fuller and more fruitful em-
ployment and a fuller and more fruitful hfe/' —

Fkakkun D. Koosevelt.

November 17, 19U.

IX

SUMMARY Cf THE REPORT

SCfENTIflC PROGRESS IS ESSE

Propess m the war gainst disease depeads apoa a flow of mw
scientific knowledge. Kew products, new industries, and more jobs
require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature, end
the application of that knowledge to practical purposes. Similarlj,
our defense against a^ession demands new knowle^e so that we
can develop new and improved weapons. Tiik eeeentim, new knowl-
edge can be obtained only through basic scientific research.

&ience con be effective in the national welfare only as a member of
a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But without scien-
tific progress no amount of achievement in other directioius can insure
our health, prosperity, and security as a nation in the modern world

For tHe War Against Disease

We haTe taken strides in the wtr a^inst disease. TIte death
rate for all diseases in the Army, including overseas forces, has been
reduced from 14.1 per thousand in the last war to 0.6 per thousand in
this war. In the last 40 years life expectancy has increased from 49
to 65 years, largely as a consequence of the" reduction in the death
rates of infants and children. jBut we are far from the goal. Tlie
annual deaths from one or two diseases far exceed the total number
of American lives lost in battle durii^ this war. A large fraction of
these deaths in our civilian population cut fdiort the useful lives of
our citizens. Approximately 7,000,000 persons in the United States
are mentally ill and their care costs the public over $17»5.000,000 a
rear. Clearly much illom remains for which adequate means of
prevention and ctire are not yet knowm.

The responsibility for bask* research in medicine and the under-
lying sciences, so essential to progress in tlie war against djscase, falls
.prinuiriiy upon the medical sclicnds an<! universitifs. Yet we find
that the traditional sources of support for medical research in the
medical schools and universities. largely endowment income, founda-
tion grants, and private donations, are diminishing and there is no
immediate proepeet of a change in this trend. Meanwhile, the cost
of medical research has been rising. If we are to maintain the progress
in medicine w^hich has marked the last 25 years, the Government
should extend financial support to basic medical r^ctrch in the medi-
cal schools and in universiti^.

For Our National Security

Thf bitter and dangerous battle against tbe U-boat was a battle of
scientific techuiquea-^and our margin of success was danproiisly
cmaU. The new eyes which radar has supplied «sn sometimcB be
blinded by new scientific devdopments. v-2 wae coimtered only
by capture of the launching sites.

We cannot again rely on out aUlee to herfd the enemy while we

straggle to catch np. There must be more— and more adequate-
military research in peacetime. It is essential that the civilian scien-
tists continue in peacetime some portion of those contributions to
national security which they have made so effectively during the war.
This can best be done through a civilian-controlled organization with
close liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from
Congress, and the clear power to initiate military research which wiU
supiSement and strengthen that carried on directly under the control
of the Army and Navy.

And for the Public Welfare

One of our Lopes is that after the war there will be full employ-
ment. To reach that goal the full creative and productive energies of
the American people must be released- To create more jobs we must
make new and better and cheaper products. We want plenty of new,
vigorous enterprises. But new products and processes are not bom
full-grown. They are founded on new principles and new concep-
tions which in turn result from basic scientific research. Basic
scientific research is scientific capital. Moreow, we cannot any
longer depend upon Europe as a major source of tms scientific capital.
Clearly, more and better scientific research is one essential to the
achievem^t of our goal of full employment.

How do we increase this scientific capital? First, we must have
plenty of men and women trained in science, for npon them depends
jk)th the creation of new knowledge and its application to practical
purposes. Second, we must strengthen the centers of basic research
which are principally the colleges, universities, and research institutes.
These institutions provide the environment which is most conducive
to the creation of new scientific knowledge and least under pressure
for immediate, tangible results. With some notable exceptions, most
research in iadustry and in Government involves application of
existing scientific knowledge to practical problems. It is only the
colleges, universities, and a few research institutes that devote most
of their research efforts to expanding the frontiers of knowledge.

Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Government
increased from $140,000,000 in 1930 to $309,000,000 in 1940. Those
for the colle^ and touversiti^ increased from $20,000,000 to $31,-
000,000, whne those for the research institutes declined from $5,200,-
to $4,500,000 during the same period. If the colleges, univer-
siti®, and r^arch institutes are to meet the rapidly increasing de-
mands of industry and Government for new scientific knowledge,

^ their basic research should be strengthened by use of public funds.

For science to serve as a powerful factor in our national welfare, ap-
plied research both in Government and in iadustry must be vigorous.
To improve the quality of scientific research within the Government,
steps ^ould be t^en to modify the procedures for recruiting, classi-
fying, and compensating scientific personnel m order to reduce the
pi^ent handicap of govenunental scientific bureaus in competing with
industiy and the universiti^ for top-grade scientific talent. To pro-
vide coordination of the common scientific activities of these govem-
menfeal ag^cies as to policies and budgets, a permanent Science
Advisory Board shoxdd be created to advise the executive and legis-
lative branches of Government on these matters.

The most important ways in which the Government can promote
industrial research are to increase the flow of new scientific knowledge
through support of basic research, and to aid in the development of
scientific talent. In addition, the Government should provide suit-
able incentives to industry to conduct research, (a) by clarification of
present uncertainties in the Internal Revenue Code in regard to the
deductibility of research and development expenditures as current
chaises against net income, and (b) by strengthening the patent sys-
tem so as to eliminate uncertainties which now bear heavily^ on small
industries and so as to prevent abuses which reflect discredit upon a
basically sound system. In addition, ways should be found to cause
the benefits of basic research to reach industries which do not now
utilize new scientific knowledge.

WE MUST RENEW OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT

The responsibility for the\creation of new"" scientific knowledge —
and for most of its application — crests on that small body of men and
women who xmderstand the fundamental laws of nature and are
skilled in the techniques of scientific research. We shall have rapid
or slow advance on any scientific frontier depending on the number of
highly qualified and trained scientists exploring it.

The^deficit of science and technology students who, but for the war,
would ha^re received bachelor's degrees is about 150,000. It is esti-
mated that the deficit of those obtaining advanced d^rees in these
fields will amount in 1955 to about 17,000 — for it takes at least 6
years from college entry to achieve a doctor's degree or its equivalent
in science or engineering. The real ceiling on our productivity of new
scientific knowledge and its application in the war against disease, and
the development of new products and new industries, is the number of
trained scientists available.

The training of a scientist is a long and expensive process. Studies
clearly show that there are talented individuals in every part of the
population, but with few exceptions, those without the means of buy-
ing higher education go without it. If ability, and not the circum-
stance of family fortune, determines who shall receive higher educa-
tion in science, then we shall be assured of constantly improving
quality at every level of scientific activity. The Government should
provide a reasonable number of undergraduate scholarships and
graduate fellowships in order to develop scientific talent in American
youth. The plans should be designed to attract into science only that
proportion of youthful talent appropriate to the needs of science in
relation to the other needs of the nation for high abiliti^.

Including Those in Uniform

The most immediate prc^pect of making up the deficit in scientific
personnel is to develop the scientific talent in the generation now in uni-
form. Even if we should start now to train the current crop of high-
school graduates none would complete graduate studies before 1951.
The Armed Service should comb tiieir records for men who, prior
to or during the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and
make prompt arrangements, consistent with current discharge plans,
for ordering those too remain in uniform, as soon as militarily possi-

bk, to duty »fc iBetitatieug befe overseas where they ean continue
their scientific education. Moreovei', the Services should see that those

wilo stady hs¥0 tkd benefit of tb@ latest sciontific informihtioG

raiulting from fiioa^cb during tb^ wa^.

THE LID MUST BE LIFTED

tThlle most of tbe war research has involved the application of
earing sckntific knowledge to the problems of war, rather than basic
Ti^earw, tibere has been accumulated, a vast amount of information
relating to riie application of science to particular problems. Much
of this can be used by indi^tiy. It is also needed fern teaching in the
colleges and universities here and in the Armed Forces Institutes
overseas. Some of this information must remain secret, but most of it
should be made public as soon as there is ground for belief that the
enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. ^ To select
that portion which should be made public, to coordinate its release,
and delinitelj to encourage its publication, a Board composed of
Army, Navy, and civilian scientific members should be promptly
^ta&lished- _ . . , ^ ^ .

A PROGRAM FOR ACTION

The Government should accept MW respousibiliti^ for promoting
the flow of new scientific knowledge and the deteiopmettt of scientific
talent in our youth. These fespor^bilities are the proper concern of
the Government, for they vitally affect otir health, our joba, and our
national security. It is in keeping ali^ with baeic United States
policy that the Goteminent should foster the opening of new frontiers
and this is the modem way to do it. For many years the Govern-
ment has wisely supported research in the agricultural colleges and
the benefits have been great. The time has come when such support-
; hould be extended to other fields.

The effectiye discharge of these now r^ponsibilities will require the
full attention of some oyer-aU agency devoted to that purpose. There
is not now in the permanent Governmental structure receiving its
funda.froM Congri^ an agency adapted to supplementing the support
of basic research in the cofl^eS, universities, and research institutes,
both in medicine and the natural sciences, adapted to supporting
research on new weapows for both Services, or adapted to administer-
ing^ prMrtm of sdrttCe scholarships and fellowships.

Therefore f recommend that a now agency for these purposes be
^tablished. Such an agency should be composed of persons of broad
interest and experience, havir^ an understanding of the peculiarities
of scientific rfSearch and scientific education. It should have stability
of funds so that long-range programs may be undertaken. It should
recognize that freedom of inquiry must be preserved ami Shoidd l^vo
internal control of policy, personnel, and the method and scope of
to itetitetioTO m which it is carried on. It shouM be
f^y to tiie Presidelit and through him to the Cosgresei

M ite prc^i^..

J^rly Ob fecfirnimendationS' is imp^ativO if nfttiOn

mi®^' til® chaflen^ o4 scMMe in the CrUrial- years a^eid. On the
Wiidewi wilh^whiA W® jerienoe to t^r in the war against disease,
in tike of new uSdaBtoei,' md m the stinM^themng of Om

i^»«d Wm^ dipeiiii in larpi ^^^nre our futem a nafciom

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Scientific Prosress Is Essential

Wa all know how much the new drug, penicillin, has meaiJt to our
grievously wounded men on the grim battlefronts of this war — the
countless lives it has saved — the incalculable suffering which its use
has prevented. Science and the great practical genius of this nation
made this achievement possible.

Some of us know the vital role which radar has played in bringing
the United Nations to victory over Nazi Germany and in driv'ing the
Japanese steadily back from their island bastions. Again it was
painstaking scientific research over many years that made radar
possible.

What we often forget are the millions of pay envelopes on a peace-
time Saturday night which are filled because new products and new
industries have provided jobs for countless Americana. Science
made that possible, too.

In 1939 millions of people were employed in industries which did
not even exist at the close of the last war — radio, air conditioning,
rayon and other synthetic fibers, and plasties are examples of the
products of these industries. But these things do not mark the end
of progress — they aJe but the be^nning if we make full use of our
scientific resources. New manufacturing industries can be started
and many older industries greatly strengthened and expanded if we
continue to study nature’s laws and apply new knowledge to practical
purposes.

Great advances in agriculture are also based upon scientific re-
search. Plants which are more resistant to disease and, are adapted
to short growing seasons, the prevention and cure of livestock dis-
eases, the control of our insect enemies, better fertilizers, and improved
agricultural practices, all stem from painstaking scientific research.

'Advances in science when put to practical use mean more jobs,
higher wages, shorter hours, more abundant crops, more leisure for
recreation, for study, for learning how to live without the deadening
drudgery which has been the burden of the common man for ages past.
Advances in science will also bring higher standards of living, will
lead to the prevention or cure of diseases, will promote conservation
of our limited national resources, and wifi a^ure means of defense
against aggression. But to achieve these objectives— to secure a high
level, of employment, to- maintain a position of world leadership— the
fiow of new scientific knowledge must b© both continuous and sub-
stantial.

Our population, increasod from 75 million to 130 million between
1900 and 1940. In some countries comparable increases nave been
accompanied by famine. In this country the increase has been accom-
panied by more abundant food supply, better hving, more leisure,
longer life, and better health. This is, largely, the product of three
factors— the free play of initiative of a vigorous people under demo-
cracy, the heritage of great natural wealth, and the advance of science

and its application. . • i • i ,

Science, by itself, provides no panacea for individual, social, and
economic’ills. It can be effective in the national welfare only as a
member of a team, whether the conditions be peace or war. But
without scientific progress no amount of achievement in other direc-
tions can insure our health, prosperity , and security as a nation in the
modem world.

Science Is a Proper Concern of Government

It has been basic United States policy that Government should
foster the opening of new frontiers. It opened the seas to clipper
ships and furnished land for pioneers. Although these frontiers have
more or less disappeared, the frontier of science remains. It is in
keeping with the American tradition — one which has made the
Unit^ States great — that new frontiers shall be made accessible
for development by all American citizens.

Morwver, since health, well-being, and security are proper con-
cerns of Government, scientific progress is, and must be, of vital
inter^t to Government. Without scientific progress the national
health would deteriorate; without scientific progress we could not
hope for improvement in our standard of living or for an increased
number of jobs for our citizens; and without scientific progress we
could not have maintained our liberties against tyranny.

Govemroent Relations to Science — Past and Future

From early days the Government has taken an active interest in
scientific matters. During the nineteenth century the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, iiie Naval Observatory, the Department of Agri-
culture, and the Geological Survey w^ established. Through the
Land Grant College Acts Ihe Government has supported research in
state institutions for more than 80 years on a gradually increasing
scale. Since- 1^)0 a lar^ number of scientific agencies have been
established within the Federal Government, until in 1939 they
numbered more than 40.

Much of the scientific research done by Government agencies is
intermediate in character between the two types of work commonly
referred to as basic and applied research. Almost all Government
mentific work has ultimate practical objectives but, in many fields of
broad national concern, it commonly involves long-term investigation
of a fundamental nature. Generally speaking, the scientific agencies of
Government are not so concerned with immediate practical objectives
as fyre the laboratories of industry nor, on the other hand, are they as
free to explore any natural phenomena without regard to possible
e<x)nomic applications as are the educational and private research
institutions. Government scientific agencies have splendid records
of achievement, but they are limitoi in function.

We liaYe no national policy for science. The Government has only
begun to utilize science in the , nation’s welfare. There is no body
within the Government charged with formulating or executing a
national science policy. There are no standing committees of the
Congress devoted to this important subject. Science has been in the
wings. It should be brought to the center of the stage — for in it
lies much of our hope for the future.

There are areas of science in which the public interest is acute but
which are likely to be cultivated inadequately if left without more
support than will come from private sources. These areas — such as
research on military problems, agriculture, housing, public health,
certain medical research, and research involving expensive capital
facilities beyond the capacity of private institutions — should be ad^
vanced by active Government support. To date, with the exception
of the intensive war research conducted by the Office of Scientific
Kesearch and Development, such support has been meager and
intermittent.

For reasons presented in this report we are entering a period when
science needs and deserves increased support from public funds.

Freedom of Inquiry Must Be Preserved

The publicly and privately supported colleges, universities, and
research institutes are the centers of basic research. They are the
wellsprings of knowledge and understanding. As long as they are
vigorous and healthy and their scientists are free to pursue the truth
wherever it may lead, there will be a flow of new scientific knowledge
to those who can apply it to practical problems in Government, in
industry, or elsewhere.

Many of the l^ons learned in the war-time application of science
under Government can be profitably applied in peace. The Govern-
ment is peculiarly fitted to perform certain functions, such as the
coordination and support of broad programs on problems of great
national importance. But we must proceed with caution in carrying
over the methods which work in wartime to the very different condi-
tions of peace. We must remove the rigid controls which we have
had to impose, and recover freedom of inquiry and that healthy com-
petitive scientific spirit so necessary for expansion of the frontiers of
scientific knowledge.

Scientific progress on a broad front results from the free play of
free intellects, working on subjects of their own choice, in the manner
dictated by their curiosity for exploration of the unknown. Freedom
of inquiry must be preserved under any plan for Government support
of science in accordance with the Five Fundamentals listed on page 26.

The study of the momentous questions presented in President
Koosevelt’s letter has been made by able committees working dili-
gently. This report presents conclusions and recommendations based
upon the studies of th^e committees which appear in full as the
appendic^. Only in the creation of one over-all mechanism rather
than several does this report depart from the specific recommenda-
tions of the committees. The members of the committees have
reviewed the recommendations in regard to the single mechanism
and have found this plan thoroughly acceptable.

Chapter 2

THE WAR AGAINST DISEASE

In War

The death rate for all diseases iii the Army, including the overseas
foroes, has been reduced from 14.J per thousaud in the last war to
0.6 per thousand in this war.

Such ravaging diseases as yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus,
pneumonia, and meningitis have been all but conquered by penicillin
and the sulfa drugs, the insecticide DDT, better vaccines, and im-
proved hygienic measur^. Malaria has been controllod. There has
been dramatic progress in surgery.

The striking advances in medicine during the war have been
possible only because we had a large backlog of scientijflc data
accumulated through basic research in many scientific fields in the
years before the war.

In Peace

In the last 40 years life expectancy in the United States has in-
creased from 40 to 65 ^^ears largely as a consequence of the reduction
in the death rates of infants and children; in the last 20 years the
death rate from the diseases of childhood has been reduced 87 percent.

Diabetes has been brought undei* control by insulin, pernicious
anemia by liver extracts; and the once widespread deficiency diseases
have beep much reduced, even in the lowest income groups, by
accessory food factors and improvement of diet. Notable advances
have been made in the early dia^osis of cancer, and in the surgical
and radiation treatment of the disease.

These results have been achieved through a great amount of basic
research in medicine and the preclinical sciences, and by the dissem-
ination of this new scientific knowledge through the physicians and
medical services and public health agencies of the country. In this
cooperative endeavour the pharmaceutical industry has played an
important role, especially during the war. All of the medical and
public health ^ups share credit for these achievements; they form
interdependent members of a team.

Progress in comhsiting diame depends npon an expanding body of
new identific knowledge.

Unsolved Problems

As President Eoosevelt observed, the annual deaths from one or
two diseases are far in' exc^ of the total number of American lives

lost in battle during this war. A large fraction of these deaths in
our civilian population cut short the useful lives of our citizens. This
is our present position despite the fact that in the last three decades
notable progress has been made in civilian medicine* The reduction
in death rate from diseases of childhood has shifted the emphasis to
the middle and o’d age groups, particularly to the malignant diseases
and the degenerative processes prominent in later life. Cardiovasculm*
disease, including chronic disease of the kidneys, arteriosclerosis, and
cerebral hemoirh^e, now account for 45 percent of the deaths in the
United States. Second are the infectious diseases, and third is cancer.
Added to these are many maladies (for example, the common cold,
arthritis, asthma and hay fever, peptic ulcer) which, though infre-
quently fatal, cause incalculable aliSability. ^

Another aspect of tbe chanijing emphasis is the increase of mental
diseases. Approximately 7 million persons in the IJoited States are
mentally ill; more than one-third of the hospital beds are occupied by
such persons, at a cost of $175 million a year. Each year 125,000 new
mental cases are hospitalized.

Notwithstanding great progress in prolonging the span of life and
in relief of suffering, much illness remains for which adequate means
of prevention and rure are not yet known. While additional physi-
cians, hospitals, and health programs are needed, their full usefulness
cannot be attained unless We enlarge our knowledge of the human
organism and the nature of disease. Any extension of medical
facilities must be accompanied by an expanded program of medical
trainiiig and research.

Brodd and Basic Studies Needed

Discoverlcf^ pertinent to tnedieal progress have often come from
remote and unexpected sources, and it is certain that this will be true
in the future. It is wholly probable that progresjs in the treatment of
cardiovasctilaf disease, renal disease, cancer, and eimilar refractory
diseases will be made as the result of fundamental discoveries in suh-
jects unrelated to those discaeee, and perhaps entirely unexpected by
the investigator. Further progress requires that the entire front of
medicine and the underlying sciences of chemistry, physics, anatomy,
biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, bacteriology, pathology,
parasitology, etc., be broadly developed.

Progress in the war against disease results from discoveries in
remote and unexpected fields of medicine and the underlying sciences.

Coordinated Attack on Special Problems

Penicillin reached our troops in time to save counties lives because
the Government coordinated and supported the program of re^eaxch
and development on the drug. The development moved from Ih©
early laboratory stage to large scale production and Use in a fraction
of the time it would have taken without such leadership* ThO search
for better anti-malarkls, which proceeded at a moderate tempo for
many years, has been accelerated enormomly by Government supj^rt
during the war. Oth^ example can be cited in which mescal
progress has been simitoly advanced* In achieving these r^ultsl, the

Goveri303tt6nt has provided o vci -all coordination and support j it has
not dictated how the work snould be done witliin any cooperating

Discovery of new therapeutic agents and methods usually results
iErom basic studies in medicine and the underljdng sciences. The
development of such materials and naethods to the point at which they
become avaflable to medical practitioners requires teamwork inyolv-
ing the medical schools, the science^ departments of univei^ities,
Government and the pharmaceutical industry. Government initia-
tive, support, and coordmation can be very enective in this develop-
moat phase.

Govemment initiatiTe and support for the development of newly
discovered therapeutic materials and methods can reduce the time
r^uired to bring the benefits to the public..

Action is Necessary

The primary place for medical research is in the medical schools and
universiti^. In some cases coordinated direct attack on special
problems may be made by teams of investigators, supplementing
similar attacks carried on by the Army, Navy, Public Health Service,
and other oimuizations. Apart from teaching, however, the primary
obligation of the medical schools and universities is to continue the
tramtional function of such institutions, namely, to provide the
individual worker with an opportunity for free, untrammeled study
of nature, ia the directious and. by the methods suggested by his
interests, curiosity, and imagination. The history of medical science
teaches clearly the supreme importance of affording the prepared mind
complete fre^om for the exercise ofj|initiative. It is the special
province of the medical schools and universities to foster medical
research in this way — a duty whidb. cannot be shifted to government
agencies, industrial organizations, or to any other institutions.

'Where dmical investigations of the human body are required, the
m^icaJ schools are in a unique position, because of their close relation-
ship to teaching hospitals, to int^xate such investigations with the
work of the depaxteents of precfinical science, and to impart new
knowledge to physicians in training. At the same time, the teaching
hospitals are especially weli qualified to carry on medical research
because of their dose connection wit^ the medical schools, on which
they depend for staff and supervision.'

Between W<^^ld War I and World War ITthe United States overtook
all other nations in medical research and assumed a position of world
leader^ip. To a considerable extent this progress reflected the liberal
fcancial support from university endowment income, gifts from
individuals, and foundation grants in the 20's. The growth of re-
search departments in m^ioal schools has been very uneven, how-
avar, and in consequence most of the important work has been done in
a few large^ schools. This should be corrected by building up the
weafce* institutions, ^^pecially in regions which now have no strong
medical r^earch activities.

The traditional sources of support for medical research, largely
endo^^ment income, foundation grants' and private donations, are
diminishing, and there is no immediate prospect of a change in this
trend. Meanwhile, research costs have steadily risen. More elabor-

10

ate and expensive equipment is required, supplies are more costly,
and the wages of assistants are higher. Industry is only to a limited
extent a source of fimds for basic medical research.

It is clear that if we are to maintain the progress in medicine which
has marked the last 25 years, the Government should extend financial
support to basic medical research in the medical schools and in the
universities, through grants both for research and for fellowships.
The amount which can be effectively spent in the first year shoidd
not exceed 5 million dollars. After a program is under way perhaps
20 million dollars a year can be spent effectively.

11

Chapter 3

SCIENCE AND THE PUBLIC WELFARE

Relation to National Security

In this war it has become clear beyond all doubt that scientific
research is absolutely essential to national security. The bitter and
dOsBi^Grous bctttic agaiiiist tbe U-boat was a battlo of scion tific t6cb-
niques — and our margin of success was dangerously small. The new
eyes which radar supplied to our fighting forces quicldy evoked the
development of scientific countermeasures which could often blind
them. This again represents the ever continuing battle of techniques.
The V-1 attack on London was finally defeated by three devices
developed during this war and used superbly in the field. V-2 was
countered only by capture of the launching sites.

The Secretaries of War and Navy recently stated in a joint letter
to the National Academy of Sciences:

This war emphasizes three facts of supreme importance to national security:
(1) Powerful new tactics of defense and offense are developed around new weapons
created by scientific and engineering research; (2) the competitive time element
m developing those weapons and tactics may be decisive; (3) war is increasingly
total war, in which the armed services must be supplemented by active participa-
tion of every element of civilian population.

To insure continued preparedness along farsighted technical lines, the research
scientists of the country must be called upon to continue in peacetime some
substantial portion of those types of contribution to national security w’hich they
have made so effectively during the stress of the present war * *

There must be more — and more adequate — military research during
peacetime. We cannot again rely on our allies to hold off the enemy
while we stru^le to catch up. Further, it is clear that only the
Government can undertake military research; for it must be carried
on in secret, much of it has no commercial value, and it is expensive.
The obligation of Government to support research on military prob-
lems is inescapable.

Modern war requires the use of the most advanced scientific
techniques. Many of the leaders in the development of radar are
scientists who before the war had been exploring the nucleus of the
atom. While there must be increased emphasis on science in the
future training of oflScers for both the Army and Navy, such men
cannot be expected to be specialists in scientific research. Therefore
a pipfmional partnership between the oflacers in the Services and
civilian scientists is needed.

The Army and Navy should continue to carry on research and
development bn the improvement of current weapons. For many
years the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has sup-

<2

plem^nted the work of the Army and N^yj by conducting baaic
research on the problems of flight. There should now be permanent
civilian activity to supplement the research work of the Services in
other scientific fields so as to carry on in time of peace some part of
the activities of the emergency war-time OflBice of Scientifi.c K^earch
and Development.

Military preparedness requires a permanent independent, civilian-
controlled organization, having close liaison with the Army and Navy,
but with funds directly from Congress and with the clear power to
Initiate military research which will supplement and strengthen that
carried on directly under the control of the Army and Navy*

Science and Jobs

One of our hopes is that after the war there will be full employment,
and that the production of goods and services will serve to raise our
standard of living. We do not know yet how we shall reach that goal,
but it is certain that it can be aciileved only by releasing the full
creative and productive energies of the American people.

■ Surely we will not get there by standing still, merely by making
the same things we made before and selling them at the same or higher
prices. We will not get aliead in international trade unless we offer
new and more attractive and cheaper products.

Where will these new products come from? How will We find
ways to make better products at lower cost? The answer is clear.
There must be a stream of new scientific knowledge to turn the wheels
of private and public enterprise. There must be plenty of men and
women trained in science and technology for upon them depend both
the creation of new knowledge and its application to practical purposes.

More and better scientific research is essential to the achievement
of our goal of fuU employment

The Importance of Basic Research

Basic research is performed without thoxight of practical ends.
It results in general knowledge and an understanding of natuie and ite
laws. This general knowledge provides the means of answering a
large number of important practical problems, though it may not give
a complete specific answer to any one of them. The function of
applied research is to provide such complete answers. The scientist
doing basic research may not be at all interested in the practical
applications of his work, yet the further progress of industrial develop-
ment would eventually stagnate if basic scientific research long
neglected.

One of the peculiarities of basic science m the variety of paths
which lead to productive advance* Many of the m<Mt important dis-
coveries have come as a result of e^eriments undertaken with very
different purposes in mind* Statistically it is certain that important
and highly useful discoveries will tesult from Some fraction of the
undertakings in basic science; but ihe results of any one particular
investigation cannot be predicted with accuracy. ,

Basic research leads to new knowledge. It provides
capital. It creates Ihe fund from wMch the practical appli^tions

of knowledge must be drawn. New products and new^ processes do
not appear full-grown. They are founded on new principles and new
conceptions, which in turn are painstakingly developed by research
in the purest realms of science.

Today, it is truer than ever that basic research is the pacemaker of
technological progress. In the nineteenth century, Yankee me-
chanical ingenuity, building largely upon the basic discoveries of
European scientists, could greatly advance the technical arts. Now
the situation is different.

A nation which depends upon others for its new basic scientific
knowledge will be slow in its industrial progress and weak in its
aimpetitiYe position in world trade, regardless of its mechanical skill

Centers of Basic Research

Publicly and privately supported colleges and universities and the
endowed research institutes must furnish both the^ new scientific
knowledge and the trained research workers. These institutions are
uniquely qualified by tradition and by their special characteristics to
carry on basic research. They are charged with the responsibility of
conserving the knowledge accumulated by the past, imparting that
knowledge to students, and contributing new knowledge of aU kinds.
It is chiefly in these institutions that scientists may work in an atmos-
phere which is relatively free from the adverse pressure of convention,
prejudice, or commercial necessity. At their best they provide the
scientific worker with a strong sense of solidarity and security, as well
as a sul]6tantial degree of personal intellectual freedom. All of these
factors are of great importance in the development of new knowledge,
since much of new knowledge is certain to arouse opposition because
of its tendency to challei^e current beliefs or practice.

Industry is generally inhibited by preconceived goals, by its own
dearly defined standards, and by the constant pressure of commercial
nec^ity. Satisfacto^ progress in basic science seldom occurs under
conditions prevailing in the normal mdustrial laboratory. There are
some notable exceptions, it is true, but even in such cases it is rarely
possible to match the universities in respect to the freedom which is so
important to scientific discovery- .

^ To serve effectively as the centers of basic research these institu-
tions mmt be strong and healthy. They must attract our best scien-
tists as teachers and investigators. They must offer research oppor-
tunity^ and sufficient compensation to enable them to compete with
mdust^ and government for the cream of scientific talent.

During the past 25 years there has been a great increase in indus-
trial research involving the application of scientific knowledge to a
multitude of practical purposes — thus providing new products, new
mdustries, new inv^tment opportunities, and millions of jobs.
DunM the same period research within Government — again largely
applied research — has also been greatly expanded. In the decade
from 1930 to 1940 expenditures for mdustrial research increased from
$116,000,000 to $240,000,000 and those for scientific research in
Government rose from $24,000,000 to $69,000,000. Durng the same
period expenditures for scientific r^earch in the colleges and univer-
sities increase from $20,000,000 to $31,000,000, while those in the
endows r^earch institute declined from $5,200,000 to $4,500, .000

14

These are the best estiinates available. The figures have been taken
from a variety of sources and arbitrary definitions have necessar^‘
been applied, but it is believed that they may be accepted as indicating
the following trends:

(a) Expenditures for scientific research by industry and Gov-
ernment— almost entirely applied research — have more than
doubled between 1930 and 1940. Whereas in 1930 they were
six times as large as the research expenditures of the colleges,
universities, and research institutes, by 1940 they were nearly
ten times as large.

(b) While expenditures for scientific research in the colleges
and universities increased by one-half during this period, those
for the endowed research institutes have slowly declined.

If the colleges, universities, and research institutes are to meet
the rapidly increasing demands of industry and Government for new
scientific knowledge, their basic research should be strengthened by
use of public funds.

Research Within the Government

Although there axe some notable exceptions, most research con-
ducted within governmental laboratories is of an applied nature.
This has always been true and is likely to remaia so. Hence Govern-
ment, like industry, is dependent upon the colleges, universities, and
research institutes to e^^and the basic scientific frontiers and to
furnish trained scientific investigators.

Research within the Government represents an important part
of our total research activity and needs to be strengthened and ex-
panded after the war. Such expansion should he directed to fields of
inquiry and service which are of public importance and are not ade-
quately carried on by private oi^anizations.

The most important single factor in scientific and technical work
is the quality of personnel employed. The procedures currently
followed within the Government for recruiting, classifying and com-
pensatmg such personnel place the Government under a severe
handicap in competing with industry and the universities for first-class
scientific talent. Steps should be' taken to reduce that handicap.

In the Government the arrangement whereby the numerous
scientific agencies form parts of larger departments has both ad-
vantages and disadvantages. But the present pattern is fiirmly
established and there is much to be said for it. There is, however, a
very real need for some me^ure of coordination of the common
scientific activities of these agencies, both as to policies and budgets,
and at present no such means exist.

A permanent Science Advisory Board should be created to consult
with these scientific bureaus and to advise the exeeutive and legis-
lative branches of Government as to the policies and budgets of
Government agencies engaged in sdentific research.

This board should be composed of disinterested scientists wjio have
no connection with the affairs of any Government agency.

15

industrial Research

The simplest and most effective way in which the Government can
strengthen industrial research is to support basic research and to
develop scientific talent. ^

The benefits of basic research do not reach all industries equally or
at the same speed. Some small enterprises never receive any of the
benefits. It has been suggested that the benefits naigfit be better
utilized if ^ ^research clinics^* for such enterprises were to be established.
Businessmen would thus be able to make more use of research than
they now do. This proposal is certainly worthy of further study.

One of the most important factors afiecting the arnount of industrial
research is the income-tax law. Government action in respect to
this subject wOl affect the rate of technical progress in industry.
Uncertainties as to the attitude of the Bureau of Internal Revenue
regarding the deduction of research and development expenses are a
deterrent to research expenditure. These uncertainties arise from
lack of clarity of the tax law as to the proper treatment of such costs.

The Internal Revenue Code should be amended to remove present
uncertainties in regard to the deductibility of research and develop-!
ment expenditures as current charges against net income.

Research is also affected by the patent laws. They stimulate new
invention and they make it possible for new industries tc be built
around new devices or new processes. These industries generate new
jobs and new products, all of which contribute to the welfare and the
strength of the country. n

Yet, uncertainties in the operation of the patent laws have im-
paired the ability of small industries to translate new ideas into
processes and products of value to the nation. These uncertainties
are, in part, attributable to the difficulties and expense incident to the
operation of the patent system as it presently exists. These uncer"
tainties are also attributable to the existence of cert^ abuaes, which
have appeared in the use-of patents. The abuses should be oorreoted.
They have led to extravagantly critical attacks which tend to discredit
a basically sound system.

It is important that the patent ^stem continue to serve the country
in the mwner intended by the Cfonstitution, for it has been a vim
element in the industrial vigor which has distinguished this nation.

The National Patent Planning Commission has reported on this
subjwt. In addition, a detailed study, with recommendations con-
cerning the extent to whidh modifications should be made in our
patent laws is currently be^ made under the leadership of the
Secretary of Commerce. It is recommended, therefore, that specific
action with regard to the patent laws he withheld pending the sub-
mission of the report devoted exclusively to that subject.

International Exchange of Scientific Inforrnafion

International exchange of seientifle information is of growing im-
portance, Increasing specialization of science will make it more im-
port ant than ever that scientists in thb country keep eontinuaHv
abr^t of developments abroad. In additioh a flow of scientifirinfo^
mation constitute one facet of general international accord which
should be cultivated.

16

The Govemment can accomplish significant results in several ways:
by aiding in the arrangement of international science congresses, in
the official accrechting of American scientists to such gatherings, in
the official reception of foreign scientists of standing in this country,
in making possible a rapid flow of technical information, including
translation service, and possibly in the provision of international
fellowships. Private foundations and other groups partially fulfill
some of these functions at present, but their scope is incomplete and
inadequate.

The Government should take an active role in promoting the inter-
national flow of scientific information.

Th^ Sp^cidl for Federal Support

We can no longer count on ravaged Europe as a source of funda^
mental knowledge. In the past we have devoted much of our best
efforts to the application of such knowledge which has been discovered
abroad. In the future we must pay increased attention to discover-^
ing this knowledge for Ourselves particularly since the scientific
applications of the future will be more than ever dependent upon
such basic knowledge.

New impetus must be given to research in our country. Such
new impetus can come promptly only from the Govemment. Ex-
penditures for research in the colleges, universities, and research in-
stitutes will otherwise not be able to meet the additional demands of
increased public need for research.

Further, we cannot expect industry adequately to fill the gap.
Industry will fully rise to the challenge of applying new knowledge
to new products. The commercial incentive can be relied upon for
that. But basic research is essentially noncommercial in nature.
It will not receive the attention it requires if left to industry.

For many years the Government has wisely supported research
in the a^icultural colleges and the benefits have been great. The
time has come when such support should be extended to other fields.

In providing Govemment support, however, we must endeavor
to preserve as far as possible the private support of research both in
industry and in the colleges, universities, and research institutes.
These private sources should continue to carry their share of the
financim burden.

The Cost of a Program

It is estimated that an adequate program for Federal support of
basic research in the colleges, xmiversiti^, and research institutes and
for financing important applied research in the public interest, will cost
about 10 million doll^yrs at the outset and may rise to about 50
million dollars annually when fully underway at the end of perhaps
5 years.

17

Chapfer 4

RENEWAL OF OUR SCIENTIFIC TALENT

Nature of the Problem

The responsibility for the creation of new scientific knowledge rests
on that small body of men and women who understand the funda-
mental laws of nature and are skilled in the techniques of scientific re-
search. While there will always be the rare individual who will rise
to the top without benefit of formal education and training, he is the
exception and even he might make a more notable contribution if he
had the benefit of the best education we have to offer. I cannot im-
prove on President Conant's statement that:

* In every section of the entire area where the word science may prop-
erly be applied, the limiting factor is a human one.‘We shall have rapid or slow
advance in this direction or in that depending on the number of really first-class
men who are engaged in the work in question. * * * So in the last analysis,
the future of science in this country will be determined by our basic educational
policy.’*

A Note of Warning

It would be folly to set up a program under which research in the
natural sciences and medicine was e^anded at the cost of the social
mmoes, himiaiuties, and other studies so essential to national well-
being. This point has been well stated by the Moe Committee as
foEows:

As crtizeiK, as good citizens, we therefore think that we must have in mind
wMe examnmg the quertion before us— the discovery and development of scien-
tific tejent— the needs of the whole national welfare. We could not suggest to

..+3 wluch high ability m youth can be put are various and, to a large

extent, are dete^ned by social pressures and rewards. When aided by selective
pickmg out scientifically talented youth, it is clear that large sums of
and feUowships and monetary and other rewafds i^^l
proportonate counts might draw into science too large a percentage of the
with a result highly detrimental to tlS nitforand to
P^ns for the discovery and development of scientific talent must be related to th.

any more of it tban science’s proportionate share.”

The Wartime Deficit

woff loJn qu^ified to take up scientific

^ students over 18, except some

MiOTeeimg in Army and Navy programs and a few
4-F s, who have fdlowed an mt^ated scientific wurse of studies.

18

Neither oiir allies nor, so far as we know, our enemies have done any-
thing so radical as thus to suspend almost completely their educa-
tional activities in scientific pursuits during the war period.

Two great principles have guided us in this country as we have
turned our full efforts to war. First, the sound democratic principle
that there should be no favored classes or special privilege in a time of
peril, that all should be ready to sacrifice equally; second, the tenet
that every man should serve in the capacity in which Ms talents and
experience can best be applied for the prosecution of' the war effort.
In general we have held these principles well in balance.

In my opinion, however, we have drawn too heavily for^ non-
scientific purposes upon the great natural resource which resides in our
trained young scientists and engineers. For the general good of the
country too many such men have gone into uniform, and their talents
have not always been fully utilized. With the exception of those men
engaged in war research, aU physically fit students at graduate level
have been taken into the armed forces. Those ready for college
training in the sciences have not been permitted to enter upon that
training.

There is thus an accumulating deficit of trained research personnel
which will continue for many years. The deficit of science and tech-
nology students who, but for the war, would have received bachelor^s
degrees is about 150,000. The deficit of those holding advanced de-
grees— that is, young scholars trained to the point where they are
capable of carrying on original work — has been estimated as amount-
ing to about 17,000 by 1955 in chemistry, engineering, geology,
mathematics, physics, psychology, and|the biological sciences.

With mountiiig demands for scientists both for teaching and for re-
searchy we will enter the post-war period with a serious deficit in our
trained scientific personnel.

Improve the Quality

Confronted with these deficits, we are compelled to look to the use
of our basic human resources and formulate a program which will
assure their conservation and effective development. The committee
advising me on scientific personnel has stated the following principle
which should guide our planning:

“If we were all-knowing and all-wise we might, but we think probably not, write
you a plan whereby there might be selected for training, which they otherwise
would not get, those who, 20 years hence, would be scientific leaders, and we
might not bother about any lesser manifestations of scientific ability. But in
the present state of knowledge a plan cannot be made which will select, and assist,
only those young men and women who will give the top future leadership to science.
To get top leadership there must be a relatively large base of high ability selected for
development and then successive skimmings of the cream of ability at succ^ive
times and at higher levels. No one can select from the bottom those who will
be the leaders at the top because unmeasured and unknown factors enter into
scientific, or any, leadership. There are brains and character, strength and health,
happiness and spiritual vitality, interest and motivation, and no one knows what
else^hat must needs enter into this supra-mathematical calculus.

“We think we probably would not, even if we were aU-wise and all-knowing,
write you a plan whereby you would be assured of scientific leadership at one
stroke. We think as we think because we are not interested in setting up an
elect- We think it much the best plan, in this constitutional Republic, that oppor-
tunity be held out to all kinds and conditions of men whereby they can tetter
themselves. Tim the American way; this is the way the IJnited States has

19

becsome viiat it is. We think it verv important that cireumstanees be su^ that
t^ei© be no ceilings, other than ability itself, to intelleetnal ambition. We think:
it very important that every boy apd girl shall know i^at, if be shows that he
has wbat it takes, the skv is the limit. Even if it be shown subsequently that
he has not what it takes to go to the top, he will go further than he would other-
wise go if there had been a cefling beyond which he always knew he could not aspire.

“By proceeding from point to point and taking sto^ on way, by givfng
further opportunity to those who show themselves worthy of fjMher opportu-
nity by giving the most opportunity to those who show themselves continually'
developing—this is the way we propose. This is the American way: a man
works for what he gets.”

Remove the Barriers

Highfir education in this country is largely for those who have the
mesBS. If those who have the means eoineided entirely with those
persons who have the talent we should not be squandering a part of
our higher education on those undeserving of it, nor neglecting great
talent among those who fail to attend college for economic reasons.
There are talented individuals in every segment of the population, but
with few exceptions those without the means of buying higher educa-
tion go without it. Here is a tremendous waste of the greatest
resource of a nation — the intelligence of its citizens.

If ability, and pot the circumstance of family fortune, is made to
determine who shall receive higher education in science, then we
shall be assured of constantly improving quality at every level of
sdentific activity.

The Generation in Uniform Must Not Be Lost

We have a serious deficit in scientific personnel partly because the
men who would have studied science in the colleges and universities
have been serving in the Armed Forces. Many had begun their
studies before they went to war. Others with capacity fgr
education went to war after finishing high school. The most imme-
diate prospect of making up some of the deficit in scientific persounel
IS by salvaging scientific tajent from the generation in unifopn. For
even if we ^ould start now to train tie current crop of high scJioqI
graduates, it would be 1951 before they would complete graduate
studies and be prepared for effective scientific research. Tius &et
underlines the necessity of salvaging potential scientists in uniform.

The Armed Services should comb their records for men whp, prior
to or duriiig the war, have given evidence of talent for science, and
make prompt arrangemeiits, consiateiit with current discharge plana,
for ordering those who remain in uniform as soon as militarily possible
to duty at lEsMtutions here and overseas where they can continue their
sdentfie educatioii. Moreover, they should see that those who study
overseas have the benefit of the latest seientifie deTelopments.

A Program

The wuntiy may be proud of the fact that 9^ po^'cent of boys and
girfc of fifth grade age are enrolled in sohopl, hut tihe drop in enroll-
ment eJror the fifth grade is |e^ eatisfying.^ For §v§i*y i,O0Q students
itt ine nfta grade, fiOO are lost to education before the end of high
school, and ^ but 72^ave ceased fonnal edueation brfore eompletidn

m

of college. While we are concerned primarily \\ith methods of select-
ing and educating high school graduates at the college and higher
levels, we cannot be complacent about the loss of potential talent
which is inherent in the present situation.

Students drop out of school, college, and graduate school, or do not
get that far, for a variety of reasons: they cannot afford to go on;
schools and colleges providing courses equal to their capacity are not
availabie locally; business and industry recruit many of the most
promising before they have finished the training of winch they are
capable. These reasons apply with particular force to science: the
road i§ long and expatmire; it extends at least 6 years beyond high
school; the percentage of science students who can obtain first-rate
training in institutions near home is small.

Improvement in the teaching of ^ience is imperative; for students of
latent scientific ability are particularly vulnerable to* high school
teaching which fails to awaken interest or to provide adequate in-
struction. To enlarge the group of specially qualified men and women
it is necessary to increase the number who go to college. This in-
volve improved high school instruction, provision for helping indi-
vidual talented students to finish high school (primarily the responsi-
bility of the local communities), and opportunities for more capable,
promising high school students to go to college. Anything short of
this means serious waste of higher education and neglect of human
resources.

To encourage and enable a larger nnmber of young men and women
of ability to take np science as a career, and in order gradually to
reduce the deficit of trained scientific personnel, it is recommended
that provision be made for a reasonable number of (a) undergraduate
scholarships and graduate fellowships and (b) fellowships for advanced
training and fundamental research. The details should be worked
ont with reference to the interests of the several States and of the
nniversities and colleges; and care should be taken not to impair the
freedom of the institutions and individuals concerned.

The program proposed by the Moe Committee in Appendix 4 would
provide 24,000 undergraduate scholarships and 900 graduate fellow-
ships and would cost about $80,000,000 annually when in full opera-
tion. Each year under this program 6,000 undergraduate scholarships
would be made available to high school graduates, and 300 graduate
fellowships would be offered to coU^e graduates. Approximately
the scale of allowances provided for under the educational pro-am
for returning veterans has been used in estimating the cost of this
program.

The plan is, further, that all those who receive such scholarships or
fellowships in science should be enrolled in a National Science Reserve
and be liable to call into the service of the Government, in connection
with scientific or technical work in time of war or other national
emeigency declared by Confess or proclaimed by the President.
Thtis^ in Edition to the general benefits to the nation by reason of the
addition to its trained ranks of such a corps of scientific workers,
there would be a definite benefit to the nation m having these scientific
workers on call in national emei^endes. The Government would be
wdl advised to invest the money involved in this plan even if the
benefits to the nation were thou^t of solely — ^wMch they are not — in
terms of national preparedness.

at

Chapter 5

A PROBLEM OF SCIENTIFIC RECONVERSION

Effects of Mobilization of Science for War

We have been living on our fat. For more than 5 years many of
our scientists have been fighting the war in the laboratories, in the
factories and shops, and at the front. We have been directing the
energi^ of our scientists to the development of weapons and materials
and methods, on a large number of relatively narrow projects initiated
and controlled by the OflSice of Scientffic Research and Development
and other Government agencies. like troops, the scientists have
been mobilized, and thrown into action to serve their coxmtry in
time of emergency. But they have been diverted to a greater extent
than is generdly appreciated from the search for answers to the fxmda-
menjtal problems — from the search on which human welfare and p:^-
r^ depends. This is not a complaint — ^it is a fact. The mobihza^
tion of science behind the lines is aiding the %hting men at the front
to win the war and to shorten it; and it has resulted mciden tally in the
accumulation of a vast amount of experience and knowle^e of the
application of science to particular problems, muc^ of whhm can be
put to use when the war is over. Fortunately, this wuntey had the
scientists — and the tme — to make this contribution and thm to
advance the date of victory.

Security Restrictions Should Be Lifted Promptly

Much of the information and experience acquired during the war
is confined to the ^encies that ^thered it. Except to the extent
that military security dictates otherwise, such knowledge should be
spread upon the record for the benefit of the general public.

Thanks to the wise provision of the Secretary of War and the Sec-
retary of the Navy, most of the results of war-time medical research
have been published. Several hundred articles have appeared in the
profmional journals; many are in process of publication. The mate-
rial still subject to security classification should be released as soon
as possible.

It is my view that most of the remainder of the classified scientific
material shoidd be released as soon as there is ground for belief that
the enemy will not be able to turn it against us in this war. Most of
the information needed by industry and in education can be released
witibout disclosing its embodiments in actual military material and
devices. B^cally there is no reason to believe that scientists of oth^
countries will not in time rediscover everything we now know which

SI

is held in secrecy. A broad dissemination of scientific information
upon wbicb further advances can readily be made furnishes a sounder
foundation for our national security than a policy of restriction which
would impede our own progress although imposed in the hope that
possible enemies would not catch up with us.

During the war it has been necessary for selected groups of scientists
to work on specialized problems, with relatively little information as to
what other groups were doing and had done. Working against time,
the Office of Scientific Eesearch and Development has been obliged
to enforce this practice during the war, although it was realized by aU
concerned that it was an emergency measure whidi prevented the
continuous cross-fertilization so essential to fruitful scientific effort.

Our abUity to overcome possible future enemies depends upon
scientific advances which will proceed more rapidly with diffusion of
knowledge than under a policy of continued restriction of knowledge
now in our possession.

Need for Coordination

Id planning the release of scientific data and experience collected in
connection with the war, we must not overlook the fact that research
has gone forward under many axispices — the Army, the Navy, the
Office of Scientific Research and Development, the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics, other departments and agencies of the
Government, educational institutions, and inany industrial organiza-
tions. There have been munerous cases of independent discovery of
the same truth in different plac^. To permit the release of informa-
tion by one agency and to continue to restrict it elsewhere would be
unfair in its effect and would tend to impair the morale and efficiency
of scientists who have submerged individual interests in the controls
and restrictions of war.

A part of the information now classified which should be released is
possessed jointly by our allies and ourselves. Plans for release of such
information should be coordinated with o.ur allies to minimize danger of
international friction which would result from sporadic uncontrolled
release.

A Board to Control Release

The ^ency responsible for recommending the release of information
from military classification should be an iimy, Navy, civilian body,
well grounded in science and technology. It should be competent to
advise the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy. It
should, moreover, have sufficient recognition to secure prompt and
practical decisions.

To satisfy these consideratioiis I recommend the establishment of a
Board, made np equally of scientists and military men, whose fnnctimi
would be to pass nj^n the declassification and to control the release
for publication of scientific information which is now classified.

Poyicafion Should Be Encouraged

The rdease of information from security r^ulations is but one phase
of the problem. The other is to provide for preparation of the material

3

23

and ita publication in a form and at a pric6 wbieli will facilitate
dissemination and use. In the case of the OfiBce of Scientific Research
and Development, amngements have been inada for the preparar-
tion of manuscripts, while the staffs under our control are still as-
sembled and in possession of the records, as soon as the pressure
for production of result® for this war has begun to relax.

We should get this scientific material to scientists everywhere with
CTeat promptness, and at as low a price as is consistent with suitable
format. We should also get it to the men studying overseas so that
they will know what has happened in their absence.

It is recommended that measures which will encourage and facil-
itate the preparation and publication Of reports be adopted forthwith
by iill agencies, governmental and private, possessing scienfffic
informatima released from secmity controL

Chapter 6

THE MEANS TO THE END

New Responsibilities for Oovernment

One I^on is clear from the reports of the several committees
attached gs appendices. The Federal Govermnent should accept
new responsibiliti^ for promoting the 'creation of new scientific
knowledge and the development of scientific talent in our youth.

The extent and nature of these new responsibilities are set forth in
detail in the reports of the committees whose recommendations in this
re^rd are fully endorsed.

In discharging these responsibilities Federal funds should be made
available. We have given much thought to the question of how plans
for the use of Federal funds may be arranged so that such funds will
not drive out of the picture funds from local governments, foundations,
and private donors. We believe that our proposals will minimize
that effect, but we do not think that it can bp completely avoided.
We submit, however, that the nation’s need for more and better
scientific research is such tfiat t|ie ripk must be accepted.

It is also clear that the effective discharge of these responsibilities
will require the full attention of some over-all agency devoted to that
purpose. There should be a focal 'point within the Government for a
concerted program of asisting scientific research conducted outside
of Government. Such an agency should furnish the funds needed to
support basic research in the colleges and universities, should coor-
dinate where possible research programp on matters of utmost impor-
tance to the national welfare, should fomulate a national policy for
the Government toward science, should spepsqr the interchange of
scientific infonpation among scientists and laboratories both in this
country and abroad, and should ensure that the incentives to research
in industry and the universities are maintained. AH of the commit-
tees advising on these matters agree on the necessity for such .an
agency.

Th? Mechanistn

There are within Government departments many groups whose
interests are primarily those of scientific research. Notable example
are found within the Departinents of Agriculture, Commeapce, Interior,
and the Federal Security Agency. These groups are concerned with
science as collateral and peripheral to the major problems of th<m
Departments. These gmups should remain where they are, and con-
tinue to pejffoim th^ present functiens, including the support of agri-

S5

cultural research by grants to the Land Grant Colleges and Experiment
Stations, since their lai^est contribution lies in applying fundamental
knowledge to the special problems of the Departments within which
they are ^tablished.

By the same token these ^oups cannot be made the repository of
the new and large responsibilities in science which belong to the
Government and which the Government should accept. The recom-
mendations in this report which relate to research within the Govern-
ment, to the release of scientific information, to clarification of the
tax laws, and to the recovery and development of our scientific talent
now in uniform can he implemented by action within the existing
structure of the Government. But nowhere in the Governmental
structure receiving its funds from Congress is there an agency adapted
to supplement^ the support of basic research in the universities,
both in medicine and the natural sciences; adapted to supporting
r^arch on new weapons for both Services; or adapted to administer-
ing a program of science scholarships and fellowships.

A new agency should be established, therefore, by the Congress for
the purpose. Such an agency, moreover, should be an independent
agency devoted to the support of scientific research and advanced
scientific education alone. Industry learned many years that
basic research cannot often be .fruitfully conducted as an adjunct to
or a subdivision of an operating agency or department. Operating
agencies have immediate operating goals and are under constant pres-
sure to produce in a tangible way, for that is the test of their value.
None of these conditions is favorable to basic research. Research is
the e^loration of the unknown and is nec^saiily speculative. It is
inhibited by conventional approach^, traditions, and standards. It
cannot be satisfactorily conducted in an atmosphere where it is gauged
and tested by operating or production standards. Basic scientific
research should not, therefore, be placed under an operating agency
whose paramount concern is anything other than research. Research
will dways suffer when put in competition with operations. The
decision that there should be a new and independent agency was
reached by each of the committees advising in these matters.

I am wnvinced that these new functions should be centered in one
^ency. Science is fundamentally a unitary thing. The number of
independent agencies should be kept to a minimum. Much medical
progr^, for example, will come from fundamental advances in diem-
istry. ^ J^paration of the sciences in ti^t compartments, as would
occur if more than one agency were involved, would retard and not
advance scientific knowledge as a whole.

Five Fundamentals

There are certain basic principles which must underlie the program
of Government support for scientific research and education If such
support is to be effective and if it is to avoid impairing the very
things we seek to foster. These principles are as follows:

(1 j Whatever the extent of support may be, there must be stability
of funds over a period of years so that long-range programs may be
undertaken.

^ (2) The agency to administer such funds should be composed of
citizens selected only oh the basis of their interest in and capacity

to promote the work of the agency. They should be persons of broad
interest in and understanding of the peculiarities of scientific research
and education.

(3) The agency should promote research through contracts or
grants to oi^anizations outside the Federal Government. It should
not operate any laboratories of its own.

(4) Support of basic research in the public and private colleges,
universities, and research institutes must leave the internal control of
policy, personnel, and the method and scope of the r^earch to the
institutions themselves. This is of the utmost importance.

(5) While assuring complete independence and freedom for the
nature, scope, and methodology of research carried on in the institu-
tions receiving public funds, and while retaining discretion in the
allocation of funds among such institutions, the Foundation proposed
herein must be responsibile to the President and the Congress. Only
through such responsibility can we maintain the proper relationship
between science and other aspects of a democratic system. The
usual controls of audits, reports, budgeting, and the like, should,
of course, apply to the administrative and nscal operations of the
Foundation, subject, however, to such adjustments in procedure as
are necessary to meet the special requirements of research.

Basic research is a long-term process — it ceases to be basic if im-
mediate results are expected on short-term support. Methods should
therefore be found which will permit the agency to make commitments
of funds from current appropriations for programs of five years dura-
tion or longer. Continuity and stability of the program and its sup-
port may be expected from the growing realization by the Congress
of the benefits to the public from scientific research, and (6) from the
conviction which will grow among those who conduct research imder
the auspices of the agency that good quality work wiU be followed by
continuing support.

Military Research

As stated earlier in this report, military preparedness requires a
Immanent, independent, civilian-controlled organization, having close
liaison with the Army and Navy, but with funds direct from Congr^
and the clear power to initiate military research which will supple-
ment and strengthen that carried on directly under the control of
the Apoaj and Navy. ^ As a temporary measure the National Academy
of Sciences has established the Research Board for National Security
at request of the Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy.
This is highly desirable in order that there may be no interruption in
the relations between scientists and military men after the emergency
w^ime Office of Sci^tific Research and Development goes out of
existence. The Congress is now considering legMation to f>rovide
funds for this Board by direct appropriation.

I believe that, as a permanent measure, it would he appropriate to
to the agency needed to perform the other, functions recommended
in this report the r^ponsibilities for civilian-initiated and civilian-
wntroUed military research. The function of such a civilian group
would be primarily to conduct loi^-range scientific research on mili-
proHena® — leaving to the Service research on tihe improvement of
exSlang weapons.

27

Some on military problems should be conducted^ in time

of peace as well as in war, by civilians independently of the military
establishment. It is the primary responsibility of the Army and
Navy to train the men^ make available the weapons, and employ the
strategy that will bring victory in combat. The Aimed Services can-
not be expected to be experts in all of the complicated fields which
make it possible for a great nation to fight successfully in total ^ar.
There are certain kinds of research — such as research on the improve-
ment of existing weapons — ^which can best be done within the military
^tablishment. However, the job of long-range research involving
application of the newest scientific discoveries to military needs should
be the r»ponsibility of those civilian scientists in the universities
and in industry who are best trained to discharge it thoroughly
and successfully. It is essential that both kinds of research go forward
and that there be the closest liaison between the two groups.

Placing the civilian military research function in the proposed agency
would bring it into close relationship with a broad program of basic
research in both the natural sciences and medicine. A balance
between military and other research could thus readily be maintained.

The €stablishment of the new agency, including a civilian military
research group, should not be delayed by the existence of the R^earch
Board for National Security, which is a temporary measure. Nor
should the creation of the new agency be delayed by uncertainti^ in
regard to the postwar organization of our military departments them-
selv^. Clearly, the new agency, includiiig a civilian military research
group within it, can remain sufficiently flexible to adapt its operatioE®
to whatever may be the final organization of the military departments^

National Research Foundation

It is my judgment that the national interest in soientiSo research
and scientific ^ucation can best be promoted by tlie creation of a
National Research Foundation.

1. Pur'poses, — The National Research Foundation stould develop
and pimmote a national policy for sdientifio research aAd acksaMfic
edumtion, dhiouid support b^ic research in nonprofit oiganizations,
drould devdlop scitotifio talent m American youth by means of
seholarsMps and fellowships, and should by contract and otherwise
Support iong-ranf® research on military mattes.

II. Me7tiber$.—1, Responsibility to the people, through the Presi-
dent and the Congress, should be placed in the hands of, say nine
Members, who should be persons not otherwise connected with the
Gk)vemment and not representative of any special interest, who
should be known as National Research Foundation Members, selected
by the President on the basis of their interest in and capacity to
promote the purposes of the Foundation.

2. The terms of the Members should be, say, 4 years, and nO
Member should be digible for immediate reappointment provided he
has served a full 4-year term. It should be arranged that the Membia^i
first appointed serve terms of such length that at least two Membei^
are apmfinted each succeeding year.

3. The Members should Serve without compensation but should be
entitled to their eatpenses incurred in the performance of their duties.

4. The Members should elect their own chairman annually.

5. The chief executive officer of the Foundation should be i
director appointed by the Members. Subject to the direction anc
supervision of the Foundation: Members (acting as a board), th<
director should discharge all the fiscal, legal, and administrative func-
tions of the Fmmdation, The director should receive a salary tfiai
is fully adequate to attract an outstandiag man to the post.

6. There should be an administrative office responsible to tb(
director to handle in one place the fiscal, legal, pemonnel,^ and
similar administrative functions necessary, to the accomplishment oi
the purpose of the Foundation.

7. With the exception of the director, the division members, and
one executive officer appointed by the director to administer the
affairs of each division, all employees of the Foundation should be
appointed under Civil Service regulations.

III. Organization. — 1. In order to accomplish the purposes of the
Foundation the Members should establish several professional Divi-
sions to be responsible to the [M embers. At the outset these Divisions
should be:

a. Division of Medical Research.— r-The function of this Division
should be to support medical research.

b. Division of Natural Sciences. — The function of this Division
should be to support research, in the physical and natural sciences.

c. Dmsion of National Defense.-r-lt should be the function of thi$
Division to support long-range scientific research on military matters.

d. Division of Sdenti^ Personnel and Education. — It should be thf
fimction of this Division to support and to super’^’ise the grant of
scholarships and fellowships in science.

e. Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration. — This Divir
sion should be charged with encouraging the publication of scientific
knowledge and promoting international exchange of scientific ior
formation,

2. Each Division of the Foundation should be made up of at least
five members, appointed by the Members of the Foundation. In
making such appointments the Members shoifid request and consider
recommendations from the National Academy of Sciences which
should be a$ked to establish a new National Research Foundation
nominating committee in order to bring together the recommendar-
tions of scientists in all organizations. The chairman of each Division
should be appointed by fhe Members of the Foundation,

3. The division Members should be appointed for such terms ap
tfie Members of the Foundation may determine, and may be reap-
pointed at the discretion of the Members. They should receive their
expenses and compensation for their servicee at a per diem rate' of,
say, $50 while engag^ on busincis of the Foundation, but no division
mcniber should receive more than, say, $10,000 compensation per
year.

4. Membership of the Division of National Defense should include,
in addition to, say, five civilian members, one representative desig-
nated by the ^cretary of War, and one representative of the Secrer
tary of the Navy, who should serve without additional compensation
for this duty.

W. Fundiom. — 1. The Members of the, Fomdai^ ham th§

f (Mowing fundtonSj pmm^, emd duties :

S'llf

a. To formulate over-all policies of the Foundation.

b. To ^tablisii and mamtain such offices within the United States,
its territori^ and possessions, as they may deem necessary.

€, To meet and function at any place within the Umted States, its

temtories and po^essions. - , ^

d. To obtain and utilize the services of other Government agencies
the extent that such agencies are prepared to render such services.

e. To adopt, promulgate, amend, and rescind rules and regffiations
cany out the provisions of the legislation and the policies and

practice of the Foundation. ^ ^ ,

/. To review and balance the financial requirements of the several
Divisions and to propose to the President the annual estimate for the
funds required by each Division. Appropriations should be earmarked

for the purpose of specific Divisions, but the Foundation shoidd be
left discretion with respect to the expenditure of each Division's funds.

g. To make contracts or grants for the conduct of research by
negotiation without advertising for bids.

And with the advice of the National Besearch Foundation Divisions
concerned —

A. To create such advisory and cooperating agencies and councils,
state, regional, or national, as in their judgment will aid in effectuating
the purposes of the legislation, and to pay the expenses thereof.

i. To enter into contracts with or make grants to educational and
nonprofit research institutions for support of scientific research.

To initiate and finance in appropriate agencies, institutions, or
organizations, research on problems related to the national defense.

k. To initiate and finance in appropriate organizations r^earch
projects for which existing facilities are unavailable or inadequate.

l. To establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences
including biology and medicine.

m. To promote the dissemination of scientific and technical in-
formation and to further its international exchange.

n. To support international cooperation in science by providing
financial aid for international meetings, associations of scientific
societies, and scientific research programs organized on an international
basis-

0. To devise and promote the use of methods of improving the
transition between research and its practical application in industry.

2. The Divisions should be responsible to the Members of the Fanned
tionfoT —

a. Formulation of programs and policy within the scope of the
particular Divisions.

b. Recommendation regarding the allocation of research programs
among research organizations.

c. Recommendation of appropriate arrangements between the
Foundation and the organizations selected to carry on the program-
ed. Recommendation of arrangements with State and local authori-
ties in regard to cooperation in a program of science scholarships and
fellowships.

e. Periodic review of the quality of research being conducted imder
the auspices of the particular Division and revision of tiie program
of support of research.

/. Ir^entation of budgets of financial needs for the work of the
Division.

p. Maintaining liaison with other scientific research agencies, both
govemmentai and private, concerned with the work of the Division.

V. Patent Pdieg, — ^The success of the National R^earch Founda-
tion in promoting scientific research in this coun^ wili depend to a
very laj^e degree upon the cooperation of organizations outside the
Government. In making contracts with or gr^ts to such organiza-
tions the Foundation should protect the public inter^t adequately
and at the same time leave ^e cooperating organization with adequate
freedom and incentive to conduct scientific r^earch. The public
intent will normally be ad^uately protected if the Government
maekfm a roy^ty-free license for govmimental purposes under any
imtents resulting from work financed by the Foundation. There
^bould be no obligation on the r^earch institutiem to patent dis-

31

66yeries made &s a result of support from the J'oundation. There
should certainly not he any absolute requirement that all rights in
such discoveries be assigned to the Goternment, but it should be
left to the discretion of the director and the interested Division
whether in special cases the public interest requires such an assign-
ment, Legislation on this point should leave to the Members of
the Foundation discretion as to its patent policy m order that patent
afrangements may be adjusted as circumstances and the public
inter^t require.

tl, Speciai Authoriiy—ln order to insure that men of great com-
petence and experience may be designated as Members of the Founda-
tion and as members of the several professional Divisions, the legisla-
tion creating the Foundation should contain specific authorization so
that the Members of the Foundation and the Members of the Divisions
may also engage in private and gainful employment, notwithstanding
the provisions 6t aiiy other lawS: provided, however, that no compen-
sation for such employment is received in any form from any profit-
making institution which receives funds under contract, or otherwise,
from the Division or Divisions of the Foundation with which the
individual is concerned. In normal times, in vie# of the restrictive
statutory prohibitions against dual interests on the part of Govern-
ment officials, it would be virtuaBy impossible to persuade persons
having private employment of any kind to serve the Government in
an official capacity. In order, however, to secure the part-time
services of the most oompetefifc men as Members of the Foundation
and the Divisions, these stringent prohibitions should be relaxed to
the extent indicated.

Since research is tinlike the procurement of standardized items,
which are susceptible to competitive bidding pH fixed specifications,
the l^islatioii creating the National Researoh Fotmdation should free
the Foundation from the obligation to place ite cOntracte for research
throujp^h advertising for bids. This is particularly so since the meas-
ure of a successful research contract lies not in the dollar coat btlt in
the qualitative and quantitative contribution which is made to Our
knowledge. The extent of this contribution in turn depends on the
creative spirit and talent which can be brought to bear within a re-
search laboratory. The National Research Foundation must, there-
fore, be free to plaoe its reaearoh eontracte or grants not only with
those institutions which have a demonstrated research capacity but
also with other institution^ whose latent talent or creative atmos-
phere affords promise of research success.

As in the case of the research sponsored during the war by the Office
of Scientific Research and Development, the research sponsored by
the National Research Foundation should be conducted, in general,
on an actual cost basis without profit to the institution receiving the
r^arch contract or grant.

There is one other matter which requires special mention.. Since re-
search does not fall within the category of normal commercial or pro-
curement operation which are ecisiiy covered by the usual contractual
rdations# it is essential that certain statutory and regulatory fiscal re-
qukemente be waived in the case of research contractors. For example,
the NationM Research Foundation should be authorized by legislation
to make, modify, Or amend contracts of all kinds with or without legal
eonsM^l^n^ and without performance bonds. Similarly^ advance

31

payments should be allowed in the discretion of the Director of the
Foundation when required. Finally, the normal vouchering require-
ments of the General Accounting Office with respect to detailed itemi-
zation or substantiation of vouchers submitted under cost contracts
should be relaxed for research contractors. Adherence to the usual
procedures in the case of research contracts will impair the efficiency
of research operations and will needlessly increase the cost of the work
to the Government. Without the broad authority along these lines
which was contained in the First War Powers Act and its implementing
Executive Orders, together with the special relaxation of vouchering
requirements granted by the General Accountmg Office, the Office of
Scientific Research and 'Development would have been gravely handi-
capped in carrying on research on military matters during this war.
Colleges and universities in which research will be conducted prin-
cipally under contract with the Foundation are, unlike commercial
institutions, not equipped to handle the detailed vouchering pro-
cedures and auditiag technicalities which are required of the usual
Government contractors.

YII. Budget. — Studies by the several committees provide a partial
basis for making an estimate of the order of magnitude of the funds
required to implement the proposed program. Clearly the program
should grow in a healthy manner from modest beginnings. The
following very rough estimates are given for the first year of operation
after the Foundation is organized and operatmg, and for the fifth
year of operation when it is expected that the operations would have
reached a fairly stable level:

Activity

Millions of dollars

First year

Fifth year

Division of Medical Research.

$5. 0

$20. 0

Division of Natural Sciences

10- 0

50. 0

Division of National Defense

10. 0

20, 0

Division of Scientific Personnel and Education

7. 0

29. 0

Division of Publications and Scientific Collaboration

Administration

. 5

1. 0

1.0

2.5

33.5

12S. 5

Action by Congress

The National Research Foundation herein proposed meets the
uigent need of the days ahead. The form of the organization suggested
is the result of considerable deliberation. The form is important.
The very successful pattern of o^anization of the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics, which has promoted “basic research on
problems of flight during the past thirty years, has been carefully
considered in proposing the method of appointment of Members of
the Foundation and in defining their responsibilities. Moreover,
whatever program is established it is vitally important that it satisfy
the Five Fundamentals.

SS

The Foundation here proposed has been described only in outlLna
The excehent reports of the committees which studied these matters
are attached as appendices. They will be of aid in furnishing det^ed
su^estions.

I%islation is necessary. It should be drafted with great care
Early action is imperative, however, if this nation is to meet the
challenge of science and fully utilize the potentialities of science. On
the wisdona with which we br^ science to bear against the problems
of the conaing years depends in large measure our future as a nation.

34

APPENDICES

35

Appendix I

COMMIHEES CONSULTED

QUESTION

‘‘With particular reference to the war of science against disease,
what can be done now to organize a pro^am for continuing in the
future the work which has been done in medicine and related sciences?'^

Committee

Dr. W. W. Palmer, chairman; bard professor of medicine, Columbia
Univereity; director of medical service of Presbyterian Hospital,
New York City.

Dr. Homer W. Smith, secretary; director, physiology laboratory,
School of Medicine, New York University.

Dr. Kenneth B. Turner, assistant secretary; assistant professor of
medicine, Columbia University.

Dr. W. B. Castle, professor of medicine, Harvard University;
associate director, Thorndike Memorial Laboratory, Boston City
Hospital.

Dr. Edward A. Doisy, director, department of physiology and bio-
chemistry, St, Louis University School of Medicine (recipient of
Nobel Award).

Dr. Ernest Goodpasture, professor of pathology, School of Medicine,
Vanderbilt University.

Dr. Alton Ochsner, professor of surgery and head of the department
of surgery at Tulane Uuiversity School of Medicine,

Dr. Linus Pauling, head of the division of chemistry and chemical
engineering and director of the chemical laboratories at the Cali-
fomia Institute of Technology.

Dr. James J. Waring, professor of medicine, University of Colorado
School of Medicine.

QUESTION

““V^at can the Government do now and in the future to aid res^roh
activitim by public and private organizations? The proper roles of
public and of private research, and, their interrelation, should be
carefully considered.^’

Committee

Dr. Isaiah Bowman, chairman; president of Johns Hopkins Univer^
sity.

Dr. J. T. Tate, vice chairman; research professor of physics, Univer-
sity of Minn^Ota.

Dr. W. Rupert Maclaurin, secretary; profe^r of economic^, Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology.

31

Dr. Oliver E. Buckley, president of the Bell Telephone Laboratories.

Dr. Walter C. Coffey, president of the University of Mmnesota.

Mr. Oscar S. Cox, deputy Administrator of the Foreign Economic
Administration.

Col. Bradley Dewey, president of Dewey & i^y Chemical Co.

Dr. Clarence A. Dykstra, provost of the University of California at
Los Angeles.

Dr. C. P. Haskins, director of Haskins Laboratories.

Dr. Edwin H. Land, president and director of research, Polaroid
Corporation.

Dr. Charles E. MacQuigg, dean of the College of Engineering, Ohio
State University.

Dr. Harold G. Moulton, president of the Brooking Institution.

Eev. J. Hugh O'Donnell, president of the University of Notre Dame.

Dr. I. I. Kabi, professor of physics, Columbia University (recipient
of Nobel Award).

Dr. Warren Weaver, director for natural sciences, Rockefeller Foun-
dation.

Dr. Robert E. Wilson, chairman of the board, Standard Oil Co. of
Indiana.

Dr. William E. Wrather, director, U. S. Geological Survey.

QUESTION

“Can an effective program be proposed for discovering and develop-
ing scientific talent m American youth so that the continuing future

of scientific research in. this county may be assured on a level com-
parable to what has been done during the war?"

Committee

Dr. Henry Allen Moe, chairman; secretary-general of the John Simon
Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.

Mr. Lawrence K. Frank, secretary.

Mr. Henry Chauncey, assistant secretary.

Dr. Henry A. Bartx)n, director of the American Institute of Physics.

Dr; C. Lalor Burdick, special assistant to the president, E. I. du Pont
de Nemours <fe Co.

Dr. J. B. Conant, pr^ident of Harvard University; chairman of the
National Defense Research Committee.

Dr. Watson Davis, editor and director of Science Service.

Dr. R. E. Doherty, president of the Carnegie Institute of Technology.

Dr. Paul E. Elicker, executive secretary, National Association of
Secondary School Principals.

Mr. Farnham P. Griffiths, lawyer, San Francisco.

Dr. W. S. Hunter, professor of psychology at Brown University.

Dr. T. R. McConnell, dean of the College of Science, Literature, and
Arts at the University of Minnesota.

Mr. Walter S. Rogers, director of the Institute of Current World
Affairs.

Dr. Harlow Shapley, director of the Harvard College Observatory.

Dr. Hugh S. Taylor, dean of the Graduate School, Princeton Uni-
versitv. .

Dr. E. Wilson, professor of vital statistics, Harvard University
School of Pubhc Health.

38

QUESTION

“Wliat can be done, consistent with military security, and with the
prior approval of the military authorities, to make known to the world
as soon as possible the contributions wMch have been made during
our war effort to scientific knowledge?’^

Committee

Dr. Irvin Stewart, chairman; executive secretary of the Office of
Scientific Research and Development; director of the Committee on
Scientific Aids to Learning of the National Research Council.

?klr. Cleveland Norcross, secretary; executive assistant to the executive
secretary of the Office of Scientific Research and Development-
Dr. J. P. Baxter III, president of Williams College; historian of the
Office of Scientific Research and Development.

Dr. Karl T. Compton, president of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology; chairman of the Research Board for National Security;
member of the National Defense Research Committee.

Dr. J. B. Conant, president of Harvard University; chairman of the
National Defense Research Committee.

Dr. A. N. Richards, vice president of the University of Pennsylvania
in charge of Medical Affairs ; chairman of the Committee on Medical
Research of the Office of Scientific Research and Development.

Dr. M. A. Tuve, director, applied physics laboratory, Johns Hopkins
University; staff member of the department of Terrestrial Magne-
tism of the Carn^e Institution of Washington.

Mr. Carroll L. Wilson, executive assistant to the Director of the
Office of Scientific Research and Development.

39

Appendix 2

REPORT OF THE MEDICAL ADVISORY
COMMIHEE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Letter of transmittal 41

Members of the Committee ^ 42

Summary-— 43

Recommendations 45

Part I. Considerations on which the recommendations of the Committee

are based 46

L The record of medicine in World War II 46

2. The Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Re-

search and Development 47

3. Effect of war on medical research 48

4. The need for continued medina^ research- — 48

5. I^tportance of fundamental research to the progress of medicine^ » 40

6. The place of medical schools and universities in medical research 1 _ 50

7. Medical research under State sponsorship in Great Britain M

8. The need for Federal aid to medical research 51

9. How financial aid should be supplied - 53

10. Estimated cost of program 54

11. The need for an independent agency 54

12. Compensation-- 55

13. Patent rights 55

Part II. Fundamental principles governing the use of Federal funds ~for

medical research 57

Part III. Recommendations outlining the establishment of a '^National
Foundation for Medical Research” as an independent Federal aeenev-. 59

1. Composition of the Foundation 59

Board of trustees 59

Technical board ” 60

Office of the executive secretary 61

2, Functions of the Foundation * 62

Financial Aid ^ II'IIIIIl 62

a. General research funds. 1-111111111 62

b. Fellowships I.III 62

c. Grants-in-aid 63

Coordination and initiation of research ' " 63

3, Reports —.III”””! 64

4. Authority to modify procedure 1 64

40

LEHER OF TRANSMiHAL

Dr. Vannevab Bush, Director ^

* Office of Scientific Research and Development,

1530 P Street Air., Washington 25^ D, C.

My Dear Dr. Bush: It is my privilege to submit herewith the
report of the Medical Advisory Committee appointed by you in Janu-
ary of this year to answer the second question in President Roosevelt^s
letter of November 17, 1944, which vras worded:

With particular reference to the war of science against disease, what can be
done now to organize a program for continuing in the future the work w^hich has
been done in medicine and related sciences? The fact that the annual deaths in
this country from one or two diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of
lives lost by us in battle during this war should make us conscious of the duty we
owe future generations.

In preparing this report, the Committee has consulted some 350
representatives from 73 of the 77 medical schools of the United States,
from the Services, from various research institutions, from the phar-
maceutical industry, and from philanthropic foundations; it has
conferred in joint meeting with the Committee on Medical Research;
and it has received written comment and advice from many leaders in
medicine and allied sciences throughout the country.

The report, which is preceded by a summary, is in three parts;
(1) Considerations on which the recommendations of the Committee
are based, (2) fundamental principles governing the use of Federal
funds for medical research, (3) recommendations outlining the estab-
lishment of a National Foimdation for Medical Research as an inde-
pendent Federal agency.

The Committee reco^zes a great and urgent need for the expansion
and renovation of medical school laboratories. However, our study
has taken no account of this requirement, pertinent as it is to medical
research, since a building program was considered outside the scope of
our assignment.

This report has the unanimous approval of my Committee and I
submit it with the conviction that it has, almost without exception, the
endorsement of the many individuals to whom the Committee is so
deeply indebted for freely given and valuable advice.

R^pectfully yours,

Walter W. Palmer, Chairman,

Medical Advisory Committee.

April 25, 1945.

41

MEMBERS OF THE COMMIHEE

Dr. Walter W. Palmer, cliairnian, bard professor of medicine, Colum-
bia University; director of medical service of Presbyterian Hospital,
New York City.

Dr. Homer W. Smith, secretary, director, physiology laboratory,
school of medicine, New York University.

Dr. Kenneth B. Turner, assistant secretary, assistant professor of
medicine, Columbia University.

Dr. William B. Castle, professor of medicine, Harvard University;
associate director, Thorndike Memorial Laboratory, Boston City
Hospital.

Dr. Edward A. Doisy, director, department of physiology and
biochemistry, St. Louis University School of Medicine (recipient
of Nobel Award).

Dr, Ernest Goodpasture, professor of pathology, School of Medicine,
Vanderbilt University.

Dr. Alton Ochsner, professor of surgery and head of the department of
surgery, Tulane University School of Medicine.

Dr. Linus Pauling, head of the division of chemistry and chemical
engineering, director of the chemical laboratories at the California
Institute of Technology.

Dr. Jam^ J. Waring, professor of- medicine. University of Colorado
School of Medicine.

42

SUMMARY

Impressed by the contributions medicine has made in the present
world struggle, President Roosevelt asked what could be done by
the Government in the future to aid ‘'the war of science against
^sease.”

Recognition of the brilliant record of medicine in World War II
has brought comfort to thousands of families with members in the
armed forces. Compared to World War I the death rate for aD
diseases in the Army, including overseas forces, has fallen from 14.1
to 0.6 per 1 ,000 strength. Penicillin and the sulfonamides, the insec-
ticide DDT, better vaccines, and improved hygienic measures have
all but conquered yellow fever, dysentery, typhus, tetanus, pneumonia,
meningitis. Malaria has been controlled. Disability from venereal
disease has been radically reduced by new methods of treatment.
Dramatic jprogress in surgery has been aided by the increased avail-
ability of blood and plasma for transfusions.

Much of the credit for these advances is properly assignable to
the Committee on Medical Research of the Office of Scientific Re-
search and Development. In 3 years this o^anization has developed
penicillin and DDT; supported blood fractionation studies resulting
in serum albumin as a blood substitute and immune globulin as a
new countermeasure against infections; and standardized the effec-
tive treatment of malaria with atabrine’* now used by the armed
forces. Up to July 1944, this pro^mJhad'*’cost $15,000,000, a
modest outlay for the saving in suffering and lives.

These dramatic advances in medicine during the war have been
the result of developmental rather than fundamental research, and
have come through the application, to problems of wartime impor-
tance, of a lai^e backlog of scientific data accumulated through
careful research m the years prior to the war.

In the meantime, sorely needed additions to basic knowledge have
been prevented. The war has forced us to set aside fundamental
research to a large extent. Om capacity to carry out research in the
future has been impaired by the curt^ment of medical education,
the absorption of physicians into the armed forces, the prohibition
against training draft-eligible men m the basic medical sciences, and
the diversion into developmental problems of those scientists who
were able to remain in their laboraWries.

The universities are the chief contributors to pure science, for re-
search thrives best in an atmc^phere of academic freedom. It is to
the uniyersiti^ that we must turn to tram more men for research and
to provide the information that will enable us to solve the problems
of ean^, degenerative disease and the ageing proc^, neuropsychi-
atric disorders, peptic ulcer, asthma, and even the common cold.

University funds that can be used for medical research are decreas-
ing as research oc^ts rise. Income from endowment is steadily shrink-

43

ing, while endowment itself is no longer being increased by large new
gifts. Medical schools must continue to meet relatively fixed ex-
penses of teaching and overhead from smaller budgets, with the result
that less money is left for research. ,, ,

[Medical research will continue in the future, regardless of any ad-
verse circumstances. The Government, however, has an opportunity
to play an important role in suppleinenting the depleted research
budgets of medical schools. Fedsp^ aid will increase the volume of
medical research; it will strengthen the promise of important discovery
and speed its fulfillment; it wiU encourage and develop the financi^y
weaker schools now at a serious disadvantage; and it will enable tha
United States to maintain its position of world leadership in medic4
research in competition with the nations of Europe where State fupda
have long been available for scientific research. When a government
wisely invests the people's money in medical research, the people
receive huge dividends in the form of better health and longer lives.

If Federal funds are tp be used to aid piedical research, they should
be provided in three forms:

1. Funds should be made available as unrestricted gra.nts, with no
portion earmarked for a specific purpose, to supply technical help and
materials; to enable a limited number of young people to obtain re-
search experience during their regular course in medicine ; to build up
research in institutions where, for financial reasons, it is not now w^t
developed; and to cover a miiltitude of research requirements within
each institution. The administration of these funds should be decen-
trdizftd to the fullest possible extent, allowing full play to the wisdom
and experience of medical school faculties and administrators. If a
central agency were to attempt to underwrite a program of this sort
item by item, the costs of administration would be prohibitive, and
the org^ization would be too rigid and ponderous to meet the num-
erous, diverse, and sometimes rapidly varying heeds of the institutions,

2. Funds should be made available to support fellowships in order
that young people with aptitude for research may be selected, trained,
and given an opportunity to carry on research.

3. Funds should be made available to support special projects of
considerable magnitude and importance by grants-m-aid.

The Federal agency should receive its funds by such means as tq
permit it to favor long term grants, up to 10 years.

Federal aid should be initiated ihodestly. Funds exceeding the
capacity of the Nation’s research institutions to utilize them effec-
tively would do harm by encouraging mediocre work and by driving
away university and foundation support. The responsible agency
must remain free from political influence and resistant to special
pr^ures. _ Its policies must be determined by scientists who bring
sympathetic understanding to the problems of research- The agency
must have the necessary flexibility to modify its procedures in the
light of e:^erience.

Fpm available information it is estimated tlbat approximately 5 to
7 miUwn dojlars annually could be used effectively in the immediate
pt^twar period. M the resaan^i program develops a larger si^ i^ay
be required-

Recommendations

Tile Committee recommends that Government aid be provided for
medical research tiirough the creation of an independent Federal
agency to be called the National Foundation for IMedical Eesearch.
The Foundation would consist of a board of trustees, a technical
board, and the necessary administrative organization.

The board of trustees would consist of five eminent scientists
appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate for terms
of years, and in such a way initially as to secure rotation by the
retirement of one member each year. The trustees would serve on a
part-time basis, be paid for their work, and be appointed without
regard to civil-service laws. -Meetings of the trustees would be held
monthly with one meeting annually in each of sk geographical regions.
The trustees would determine the policies of the Foundation and act
on all requests for funds.

The technical board would consist of 12 scientists, representing
special fields of medical science, appointed by the trustees for terms
of 3 years, and in such a way initially as to secure rotation by the
retirement of 4 members each year. Technical board members
would serve on a part-time basis, be paid for their work, and be ap-
pointed without regard to the civil-service laws. Members of the
technical board would have the necessary aides and ad hoc committee
to assist them in the performance of their duties. The technical
board would forward all requests for funds to the trustees with recom-
mendations for appropriate action, follow the progress of work sup-
ported by the Foundation, and prepare reports or appraisals requested
by the trustee.

The financial and other business affairs of the Foundation would be
in char^ of a full-time executive secretary responsible to the trustees.

The Foundation would not engage in research but would initiate
and coordinate research in existing institutions and maintain liaison
with interested domestic and foreign agencies.

45

Part I

CONSIDERATIONS ON WHICH THE RECOM-
MENDATIONS OF THE COMMITTEE ARE
BASED

The Record of Medicine in World War II

We believe that at no time has superior medical and surgical care
been available to the public generally than is now received by our
armed forces even in the most remote parts of the world. Public
knowledge of the excellence of this care has brought comfort to
thousands of anxious families and has strengthened the morale of
our fighting men.

The magnificent records of the medical departments of the Army
and Navy are directly attributable to two factors: (1) The training
men received before the war in American medical schools and teaching,
hospitals was the best in the world, and, when war came, large reserves
of superbly trained physicians and surgeons were available for the
armed forces. (2) Medical progress had been rapid before the war and
was continued at an accelerated rate during the war under the stimulus
of the Committee on Medical Research and the Army Epidemiology
Board.

The results are spectacular. Between World War I and World
War II, the death rate for all diseases in the Army, including overseas
forces,has been reduce from 14.1 to 0.6 per 1,000 strength. Oysent^,
formerly th e scourge of armies, has become a minor problem. Tetanus,
typhoid, paratyphoid, cholara, and smallpox have been practically
eliminated. As a result of a potent vaccine and improved mosquito
control, yellow fever has not appeared in Hie Army or Navy. The
prompt arrest of Hie Naples epidemic of typhus by means of the
insecticide DDT is a dramatic example of preventive medicine.

The use of the sulfa drugs has lowered the death rate from lobar
pneumonia in Hie Army from 24 percent in World War I to less than
1 percent at present. The death rate from meningitis has been reduced
to one-tenth of that in World War I.

Penicillin is one of the great triumphs of modem therapeutics. By
its use death rates and disability from infections due to the staphylo-
<x)ccus, streptococcus, pneumococcus, and anthrax bacillus have hem
^eatly reduced. It has also proved to be a most effective weapon in
limiting infection and in accelerating healing of wounds and burns. As
a result of treatment with penicillin the days per man per year lost
from active duty in 1944 because of venereal disease were one-third of
those for 1940. The temporary disabling complications of gonorrhea
have been cut in this period to one twenty-fourHi.

46

Advance in surgery have been scarcely less dramatic. Despite
devastating antipersonnel munitions, the fatality rate among the
wounded has been as low as in any war in history. Prolonged and
difficult operations are performed successfully in field hospitals close
to the front. Surgical skill has been aided by the availability of large
quantities of plasma and whole blood for the treatment of severely
woimded men.

2. The Committee on Medical Research of the Office of
Scientific Research and Development

In the summer of 1940, the advice of the Division of Medical Sciences
of the National R^earch Council was sought by the Surgeons General
in many fields of medicine-and suigery . Ultimately^ 13 committees and
43 subcommittees were set up in aviation medicine, chemotherapy,
convaJ^ence and rehabilitation, drugs and medical supplies, indus-
trial medicine, medicine including malarial studies, infectious diseases,
nutrition, tropical disease, tuberculosis, venereal diseases, etc.,
neuropsychiatry, pathology, sanitary engineering, shock and trans-
fusion, surgery, and the treatment of gas casualties.

In June 1941, the Committee on Medical Research -was organized
under the Office of Scientific Research and Development, to ‘^initiate
and support scientific research on medical problems affecting the
national defense.” The existing committees of the National Research
Council acted in an advisory capacity to the new organization.

As of December 1, 1944, 496 research contracts had been executed
by the Committee on Medical Research with 120 different institutions.
Over 95 percent of these contracts were with universities or teaching
hospitals. The personnel represented in this work numbered about
2,670, of whom 553 were physicians. These investigators have
studied dysentery, bubonic plague, cholera, gas ganOTene, influenza,
tuberculosis, hemolytic streptococcal disease, encephalitis, primary
at5rpical pneumonia, airborne infections, venereal diseases, infected
wounds, bums, neurosurgery, X-rays, surgical sutures, shock, blood
substitutes, treatment of gas casualties, convalescence and rehabilita-
tion, insect and rodent control, antimalarial drugs, and the develop-
ment and use of penicillin.

Among the most conspicuous achievements of this program are
the following:

а. The acquisition, in civilian hospitals and laboratories of suffi-
cient knowledge of the therapeutic value of penicillin to warrant its
official adoption by the medical divisions of the Army and Navy, and
to provide the impetus for the great production program that has
made this remarkable drug available in large quantities for both
military and civilian use.

б. Developments in insect repellents and insecticides, particularly
DDT, important in warding troops against insect-borne diseases
such as typhus and mMaria.

c. The study of human blood plasma which' has led h) use by the
armed forces of servim albumin as a blood substitute, of immune
globulins to combat infections, and of fibrin foam to stop bleeding.

d. The improvement and standardization of the treatment of
malaria by atabrine.

47

e. The determination of the relatiye usefulness of sulfonamide
drugs in the treatment of wounds and burns.

/. The physiological indoctrination of our airmen and the developr
ment of devices tvhich enable them to endure the rigors of high alti-r
tudes without disastrous lo^ of fighting capacity or life."*

It is fair to say that without the Office of Scientific Kesearch and
Development or its equivalent few or none of the investigations listed
above would have been carried out with the same speed and thorough-
iiess. Thi^ research program to June 30, 1944, had cost over $15,000,*?
000. Private funds were not available to finance this work.

3. Effect of War on Medical Research

Despite this imposing record of practical achievement, the war has
seriously retarded the long-range development of medicine in ways
perhaps not immediately apparent to the uninformed, but neverthe-?
less with effects that will be longlasting. Because those physicians
and scientists who have remained in their laboratories have, for
patriotic reasons, devoted themselves to special problems raised by
the exigencies of war, essential fundamental research has decreased
to an extent which can only be viewed with grave conceim.

Our hospitals and medical schools have suffered serious depletions
of staff in order to supply the armed forces with needed physicians.
Medical education has been hurried and impaired by the accelerated
program, and the advanced training of young men has hem in prac-
tically complete abeyance throughout the war. This diversion of
ph;picians, coupled with an i^ffective prohibition against graduate
training in the ancillary sciences has Mt the fields of medicM scimee
barren and without the seed to produce a new generation of investi-
gators. It will be many years before medicine fully recovers.

4. The Need for Continued Medical Research

It must be emphasized that nearly all that was good or apparently
new in war medicine had its roots in civilian medicine. The pressure
of war served chiefly to accelerate the development and large scale
application to military needs of previously known facts. Medicine
must consider now how to attack the medical problems of peace.

As Pr^ident Eoosevelt noted, the annual deaths in this couptry
from, one or two diseases alone are far in excess of the total number of
lives lost by us in battle. This is true even though notable progress
h^ been made in civilian medicine during the past three decades.
Diabetes has been brought under control by the discovery of insulin;
pernicious anemia by the use of liver therapy; and the once wide-
spread deficiency diseases have been almost eradicated, even in the
poorest income groups, by the discovery of accessory food factors
Mid the improvement of the diet. Notable advances have been made
in the early diagnosis of cancer, and in the surgical and radiation
treatment of this dreaded disease.

In the period of 1900 to 1942, the average life expectancy of the
American people increased from 49 to 65 years, largely as a result of
the reduction in the death fates of infants and children. In the last
two decadm, the death rate from diseases of childhood has been re-
duced 87 percent. Deaths from^'scarlet fever have been reduced 92

4S

percent, from whooping cough 74 percent, and fipni measles 91
percent. The death rate from diphtheria among children (5 to 14)
is only one eighteenth what it was two decades ago. Only one
fourth as many children die today from tuberculosis and pneumonia
as would if the mortality rate of 20 years a,go still preyailed* The
death rate among children between the ages of 5 and 14 from all
causes combined was cut 57 percent between 1922 and 1942. For
eyeiy three children who die under current conditions, more than seyen
would have died if the death rate of two decades ago had continu^di

This reduction in the death rate in childhood has shifted the em-
phasis in medicine to the middle- and old-age groups, and particularly
to the malignant diseases and the degenerative processes which are
prominent in the later decades of life. Cardioyasciilar disease, in-
cluding chronic disease of the kidneys, arteriosclerosis, aud cerebrS,!
hemorrhage, now accounts for 45 percent of the deaths in the United
States. Second in importance are the iofectious diseases, and third
is cancer. Added to these are many maladies (for example, the com-
mon cold, arthritis, asthma and hay fever, peptic ulcer) which,
though, infrequently fatal, cause incalculable disability.

Another aspect of the changing emphasis in clinical medicine is the
increasing incidence of mental disease. Approximately 7,000,000
persons in the United States are mentally ill. More than one-third
of the hospital beds in this country are filled with such persons at a
cost of $175,000,000 annually. Each year nearly 125,000 mentally ill
new patients are hospitalized.

In short, despite notable progress in prolonging the span of hxnnan
life and in alleviating suffering, adequate methods of prevention and
cme are not yet available for many diseases. Additional hospitals,
physicians, and mechanisms for dispersing knowledge, however use-^
ful, cannot supply a complete solution. We simply do not knoW
enough, and increased facilities for medical care will not supply the
missing answers. The basic task faced by medicine is continued
exploration of the human organism and the nature of disease. This
exploration has only begun.

5. importance of Fundamental Research to the Progress of
Medicine

Research in medicine may be carried out effectively in two ways:
First, by a coordinated attack on a particular disease; or second, by
independent studies of the fundamental nature of the human body
and its physiological mechanisms, of the nature of bacteria, viruses,
and other agents of disease, and of the influence of environment on
boti. An example of the first method is the attack on malaria car-
ried out under the Army, Navy, Public Health Service, the National
Research Council, and the Office of Scientific Research and Develop-
m^t. The discovery of peniciUm is an example of the second method:
Fleming noted that a common mold, PenicUlmm notatum^ inhibitod
the growth of a culture of bacteria in which it appeM*ed as a contami-
nant. Thus an incidental observation in the course of studies unre-
lated to chemotherapy furnished the basis for the ultimate develop-
ment of the most v^uable chemotherapeutic agent known.

Discoveries in medicine have often come from the most remote and
unexpected fields of science in the past; and it is probable that this

49

wffl be equaUy true in the future. It is not i^ely that sig^cant ;
SoVris in the treatment of cardiovascular disease, kidney disease,
SSrand other refractory conditioi^ will he made perhaps unex-
^eSy ^ the result of fundamental discoveries m fields unrelated

to “obtain for the first time sight or knowledge of
some fact or principle hitherto unknown.” Discovery cannot be
Sved by dnective. Further progr^ requires that the entire
Si of medicine and the underlying sciences of chenustiy physics,
^tomy, biochemistry, physiology pharmacolo^ bacteriology,
patholo^, parasitology, etc., be developed impartially.

6. The Place of Medical Schools and Universities in Medi-
cal Research

*The medical schools and universities of tWs comtry can contribute
to medical progress by carrying on research to the Imnt of available
facilities and persoimel, and by trammg competent mvestigators for
an enlarged program in the futime. _

In some cases coordinated direct attacksi;will; be made on special
problems by teams of investigators from the medical schools, supply
menting similar direct attacks carried on by the Army, Navy , Imblie
Health Service, and other organizationsy»HoweyOT,.the mam oblig^
tion of the medical schoob and universities, m addition to teaohmg, will
be to continue the traditional function of these mstitution^that of
providing the individual worker with an opportunity for the "^mun-
tary and untrammeled study in the directions and by_ the memods
su^ested by his imagination and curiosity. The entire history ^
sc^ce bears testimony to the supreme impor^ce of feuding the
prepared mind complete freedom for the exercise of imtiatiye. .Ine
be^ duty and privilege of the medical schools and umversities is to
foster medical research in this way, and this duty caimot be shifted
to Government agencies, industrial organizations, or any other

^^^^aim^of their dose relationship to teaching hospitals, the medi^
schools are in a unique position to integrate clinical myestigation with
the work of the departments of predinical science, and to mpart new
knowledge to physidans in training. Conversdy, the teach^ hospi-
tals are especially wdl oxgmiized to carry on medicd r^earch because
of their close relationship to the schools, on which they depend for

staff and supervision. „ , i j -d

Not all our medical schools are equally devdoped. because of
iuadequate financial support or lack of trained personnel, some of
them can contribute little to medical research. A great mcrease in
the resources of the Nation would be acHeved by stimulating research
in these less favored schools. It is imperative that we employ all
possible methods of improving the research facihties and research
staffs of our present mescal schools before considering the establish-
ment of new institutions.

50

7. Medical Research Under State Sponsorship
in Great Britain

Although Federal aid for medical research was brought about in the
United States largely under pressure of war, GoTernment support of
research has been general in Europe for many years. As a rule this
support has been ddegated to organizations separate from the ordinary
Government bureaus in order to remove it as far as possible from polit-
ical influence and to place the administration of funds in the hands of
men experienced in r^earch.

In Great Britain as early as” 1911’^the promotion of medical research
was explicitly recognized as a responsibility of the State by the estab-
lishment of the Medical Research Committee, which became the
Medical Research Council in 1920. The Council has administrative
autonomy with general responsibility to a committee of ministers in
the Privy Council. It receives money from both Parliament and
nongovernmental sources specifically for furtherir^ medical research
and has no connection with any system of medical care or health
insurance.

The Medical Research Council has continued to play an increasingly
important and eminently successful role in its field. Through it
Government support for medical research and the aid of medical
science to the Government are assured.

Medical research in Great Britain also receives indirect Government
aid through the University Grants Committee, a Standing Committee
of the Treasury. Its members are independent experts of acknowl-
edged repute and thoroughly^ familiar with the problems of university
administration. The Committee's terms of reference are “To inquire
into the financial needs of university education in the United Kingdom,
and to advise the Government as to the application of any grants
that may be made by Parliament toward meeting them.”

Although the University Grants Committee do^ not give direct
grants for specific medical research projects, it holds that research is
one of the primary functions of a university and an indispensable
element in the work of university teachers. Grants to the institutions
are in the form of unrestricted funds with no portion earmarked for a
specific purpose. Through a recent act of Parliament whereby this
Committee is enabled to award $4,000,000 annually to medical schools
and $2,000,000 to teaching hospitals, this indirect support of medical
research by the Government has been substantially increased.

8. The Need for Federal^Aid to Medical Research

Between World War I and World War II the United State overtook
the other nations in medical r^earch and foiged ahead to a position of
world leadership. If this leadership is to be maintained, some form of
Government financial aid to the medical schools will be nec€ssary.
This view is accepted by the Committee and by nearly all whom the
Committee has consult^.

^ Dr. A. N. Richards, Chairman of the Committee on Medical
Research, reported to the Subcommittee on Wartime Health and
Education of the Committee on Education and Labor of the United
State Senate that, in connection with medical research, “The experi-
ence of the of Scientific Ees^rA and Development has proved

51

that none of the uniTersities which we^e calle4 upon for Office of
Scientific Eesearch and Derelopment work could afford to undertake
it on the scale which the emergency demanded at the expense of its
own r^onrces. Hence, if the concerted efforts of medical investi*
gators which have yielded so much of value during the war are to be
continued on any comparable scale during the peace, the conclusion
■ is inescapable that they must be supported by government/^ ^

At the same bearing, Dr, Lewis H. Weed, Chairman of the Division
of Medical Sciences of the National Research Council, stated *

Much of medical research will necessarily have to be abandoned in
th^ private and semiptivate institutions of the coxmtry unless Goyern-
ment subsidy is made available in some form for the general support of
medical research/’

Without Federal support American medical research will not stop,
but without it our opportunities to advance medical knowledge can-
not fully he exploited, and our objectives will be reached more slowly.

It has been computed that the annual budgets of the 77 medical
schools in the United States total about $26,000,000. ^ The portion of
this sum spent for medical research cannot be determined accurately.
Income from tuition amounts to $8,000,000, leaving a deficit of
$18,000,000 annually. To meet this deficit the schop|s, apart from
those connected with State imiversities apfi financed hj the respective
States, draw upon many sources.

A substanti^ part comes from university endowinopt, but during
the past 10 years the amount of new endowment tp meqica| schools
hm greatly diminished. At the smne time th^ incomp from pmsept
endowment has been cut by pnerthird. With cpntinnad high
taxation it is improbable that large gifts snd bequests for smentffic
work pan be expected in tho fntnre.

In many instances funda a?o allocated to the modip^ schpojs from
tuition fees derived from other departments pf the university.

Another source of research funds is the foundations, but, as in the
case of th® universities, the income from foundation endowment is
decreasing, Moreover, the foundations in general favor short-term
grants to prp|ectP which carry promise of yielding immediate results.

Industo is a potential source of funds, but gifts from this smirce
are psualjy for apecffic problems of a developmental nature. TJni-
versity alumni as^^iations contribute only relatively srpall sums*
Direct gifts from individuals are a substantial afd at times, but the
medical schools moat compete wfith all charities and churches for
these funds. Furthermore, it is estimated that gifts from individuals,
while perhaps mqre nuiperpus, are far smaller ip total than the large
contributions of individual donors in the past.

^ When the funds available to a medical school are cut, the institu-
tion usually retrenches by curtailing the portion used for research.
Overhead and teaching expenses must be met, and research becomes
a Ipxury,

Finally,^ while research fupds are decreasing, the costs of research
are steadily rising. More elaborate and expensive equipmoPt ip
rpqimM, SPPpfies are morp opstlj, apd the wages pf assistants are

9. How Financial Aid Should be Supplied

Federal financial aid to the medical schools should be proyided in
three forms: General research funds, fellowships, and ^ante- in-aid.

Gmeral research funds. — It is the Committee's opinion that un-
restricted grants, with no portion earmarked for specific purposes,
and with administration delegated to local research boards, would be
the most yaluable and productire form in which Government support
could be pvea.

A medical school consists of a dozen or more semi-autonomous
departments, each with its own budget. In the schools favored with
a large endowment, research projects are constantly in progress in all
departmente; in financially weaker schools, the budget of a depart-
ment may be too small to supply as much as a secretary for the
department head, and research is, of course, a financial impossibility*
Even in the most favored departments, the quality and quantity of
research would be greatly inci*eased if it were possible to employ an
extra technical assistant or two, to purchase additional supplies or a
nece^iary piece of equipment, to improve or enlarge animal quarters,
to meet other countless small financial requirements that may
im suddenly and may be of a temporary nature. In departmente
ilh small budgets such requirements are even more pressing. Many
.edical schools at present have small likelihood of securing grante-in-
d because they nave neither personnel nor equipment to conduct
iccessfuUy the type of research project appropriately financed by
lis method.

If a central agency were to attempt to meet item by item these
lany requirements by means of specific grants, the administrative
>sts womd be prohibitive. The amount needed for each item is
nail, but the total amoimt needed by an institution may be relatively
trge.

Furthermore, a central agency would lack the flexibility to meet
he rapidly varying and often temporary research needs that arfee in
he medic^ schools. A promising lead in r^earch may prove patently
aise within a month or two. It is equally important that the project
hould then be stopped, and its personnel and equipment promptly
liverted to more productive work, as it is that the project dhould
lave been given a ‘trial.

A special use for general research funds would be to provide '^junior
ellowships^' which would allow a medical student to interrupt his
M>urse, usually between the predinical and clinical years, and td
ievote himself full-time to research for a ^ear or two. The chances
JQ this country for medical students to gam research experience prior
bo ^aduation are few, and as a result much research abihfcy goes
undiscovered. Candidates for these fellowships would be unknown
fco a central agency, whidi would have to rely entirely won the
judgment of the locM r^arch board for their selection. Hence it
would be proper and economic^ to provide th^ fellowships from
the general research funds administered by the local board.

The provision of fimds as block grante to local research boards
would exercise to greatest advant^e the principle of decentralkation
of control of r^earch; would diminate costly ov^head; would create
a dexiMe mechanism to meet rapidly varying n^ds; would allow full
pi&j to the wisdom Mid experience of medical school faciliti^ and

adminiskators, whose knowledge in aggregate and whose particular
knowledge of local needs must always exceed that of a central agency;
would promote research in laboratories where it is now poorly de-
veloped; would foster investigations of an exploratory nature; and
would provide the great^t and most effective stimulus to medical
research.

FeUowships—FedBT&l funds should be used to support fellowships,
extending over periods up to 6 years, to be awarded by the Govern-
ment agency to enable selected men to obtain training in research, to
leam techniques in fields other than those of their basic scientific
education, or to undertake research on a full-time basis. Since 1021
the fellowship program, supported by the Kockefeller Foundation and
administered by the Medical Fellowship Board of the National Ke-
search Council, has made an important contribution to the advance of
medical science and to the training of teachers and investigators in the
United States. An increase in the number of such fellowships is
.greatly needed.

Granis-in-aid. — limited number of important research projects,
both of immediate and long-range consequence, will require special
grants-in-aid. On occasion, through grants-in-aid, support should be
given to medical schools, hospitals, or nonprofit scientific institutions
to enable a senior investigator to develop the problems of his interest
more rapidly and effectively.

i 0. Estimated Cost of Program

No final statement on costs is possible at this time. From informa-
tion received from the deans of medical schools, from the expenditures
of the Committee on Medical R^earch, and from other sources,' it is
estimated that approxmately 5 to 7 million dollars annually can be
used effectively in the immediate postwar period. A larger sum may
be r^uired when the program is fully under way. This estimate does
not include the possible assumption of present commitments of the
Office of Scientific Research and Development. A more definite
statement would require prolonged study.

1 1 . The Need for an Independent Agency

Advances in medical science have come and will continue to come
preponderantly from medical schools or science departments of uni-
versities. Therefore the problem of improving medical research and
of trmning more top-flight investigators is primarily one of aiding the
medical schools and universities to utilize their research and ^uca-
tionaJ facilities to the full^t extent.

In the Committee's opinion, medical research could best be promoted
by the creation of an^ independent Federal agency.

Tto new organization would not conflict with the medical interests
of existing Government agenci^, none of which is primarily concerned
with devdopiug the basic medical sciences or with training personnel,
teth of which are functions of the universities. Some dupucation of
inv^tigation would occur in problems in which civilian investigators
and one or more Government agmcies were mutually interested.
However, it cannot he too stroc^y emphasized that, far from being
wasteful, duplimtion is imp)erative in medical research, where each

54

new discovery can be accepted only after repeated confirmation by
independent observers approaching the problem from different points
of view. The duplication is more apparent than real, ^ the results
of independent investigators working on a common problem rarely
agree exactly, and the differences are frequently the bask for new
discoveries.

Esther than conflicting with existing agencies, ihe prop<md hody
would supplement the research activities of th^e agencies in a valuable
manner. Only through the efforts of such a body can our Govern-
ment agenda be supplied with the necessary increase in numbers of
expert personnel ^d with the all-important increase in basic scientific
knowledge on which medical advance depends.

As the function of the proposed agency is broadly conceived, m it
must be concerned not only with research but with the training of
personnel required by all exkting agencies, and as it must operate
through non-Govemmental education institutions, the future of which
rests heavily upon private endowment or support by the States, it is
the Committee^ conviction that the F^eral agency concerned with
medical research should be created de mw and be independent of all
existing agencies, none of which k sufficiently free of specialkation of
interest to warrant assigning to it the sponsorship of a program so
broad and so intimately related to civilian institutions.

1 2. Compensation

The Committee believes that better effort will be put into the work
of the agency by members if they are paid. The question of adjustr-
ment of salary from parent institutions should be left to the parties
concerned.

It k estimated that members of the board of trustees and tedmieal
board, as proposed bdow, will be called upon to give an average of
one-tnird of their time to the work of the agency. One-half the time
of the aides may be required. Thk includes time devoted by mem|>ers
to the work of the ^ency at their official stations and in traveling.

Over the past 25 years there has been an increasing draft of exi^rt
personnel from the medical sehools to meet the demand for seimtists
in activities related to the national welfare, until at present, even dis-
counting the increased demands of war, many teachers and investiga-
tors are unable to dkcharge their responsibilities to the institutions
which pay their salaries. A further increase in thk borrowing of
personnel without compensation can inflict only miury u|K>n the
medical schools.

Moreover, many competent investigators in medicine and surgery
draw a ne^gible fraction of their income as salary, depending finan-
cially upon (ffinical practice. Participation in the WOTk of the
may interrupt thk practice and the r^ulting lo^ of inwme may ex-
clude such persons from service.

1 3. Patent Riglits

The practice in regard to patmt ri^ts on discoveries and inventions
b^nii^ on hintian herfth varies in diff^ent medical ia^tutions in thk
^csountiy. The Ck'imnittee^ has m^e nO' efiwt to^ 'oodify them, or to
arrive at a generally acceptable policy.

It seems to the (^mmittM that under the present patent laws the
priiK3{de of patenting certtnn types of discoveries and inventions to
exclude misuse is sound. Since perhaps the majority of institutions
do wt capit^e their patent pri^eges, and since such practice would
be incomi^tabie with Government sponsored research, it is suggested
that, where a patent be granted on research which has been sponsored
by Government in whole or in part, the ownership of the patent remain
in the inventor, and that the Government receive, in addition to a
royalty-free license, the power to require the licensing of others.

Part II

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE
USE OF FEDERAL FUNDS FOR MEDICAL
RESEARCH

As stated above, the Committee is convinced that Federal aid is
necessaiy to ensure maximal progr^ in the development of medical
science. It is also convinced that this aid, if misdirected, may do
serious harm. It believes that among the major principle which
should govern the application of Federal aid to medical research are
the followii^:

а. Until experience has indicated the best plan of oiganimtion and
procedure, the Federal agency created to aid medical research should
be kept as flexible as possible. One of our colleague has written
“The common history of social organizations has been their creation
in r^ponse to an idea, their flowering und^ the influence of tibe idea,
their loss of the idea, and their perpetuation for the maintenan<» of
the prestige of the office-holder.^^ Only if authority to experilnsQt
with organization is written into its charter will an agency designed to
aid medical research escape this fate.

б. The administration of Federal aid to medical research must be
free from political influence and protoctwJ against special pressure.

e. Men who are experienced m research and who understanid the
problems of the investigator should administer the agency
determine its policies. Since the agency wil be ooncjerned primarly
with basic scientific research in, and scientific tryning and policies p^-
tinent to, endowed or State supported civilian institutions, and ^ce
the armed forc^, the Public Health Service, and other existing Gnv-
emmental services have specialized interests, the Committee believes
that it is as improper for any one of these services to hold the power of
vote in matters pertaining to the proposed new agency as it would he
for one or more members of the agency to vote in the medical councils
of the service.

d. The agency should not attempt to dominate or r^im^t medical
research but should function by csreatmg greater opportuniti^ and
more freedom for investiga^on, and by aiding in cooperative efforts.
It Aould not attempt to uffiuence the selection of personnd, the con-
ditions of tenure, the salaiy level, m other internal affairs of the insti-
tutioBS to which it gives aid.

e. Any prc^am of Federal aid to medical research should be mod-
mtly iniliatea in terms of actual needs and conservatiyely increased
as me capacity of the medical schools to utilize additional funds is
demoEfitFated. If the Govemmmt spends too much in medicd re-
searA, otii^r funcfe wil be drivaa out and the Gkiveomment wil be

57

the sole source of support. The schools should remain free to eleci
the potential donor to whom they wish to apply. As Senator Peppei
has stated, ‘^Government can not, and must not, take the place oi
philanthropy and industry in the sponsorship of research.^^

/. The establishment of life-time research professorships, or of pro-
toxjtod r^arch fellowships, at the expense of Federal funds is con-
sidered unwise. In exceptional instances, as for example when an
inv^tigator demonstrates unusual ability, or it is desirable to relieve
a senior and experienced person from academic or clinical responsi-
biliti^ in order to free him for research, support should be obtained
from general r^earch funds or through a grant-in-aid.

A grave danger in any effort to accelerate discovery is the ease
with wmdi the quality of the work can be lowered by encouraging
men to undertake research who are inadequately prepared or unfitted
for the task- Mediocre research work in medicine is not only apt to
be usel^, but may prove dangerous by misleadii^ medical practice
and by fostering false hopes in the public. This danger must be
guarded against by constantly encouraging corijfirmatory work or
“challenging investigations.^'

A. The agency should not serve merely as a mechanism for disbursiog
funds for particular research projects, but should always attempt to
maintain a broad view of the needs of the whole field of medical
r^earch.

i. It is believed that it would be unwise for a national body con-
cerned‘with medical research to give prizes or otherwise to dispense
praise or blame. It is also believ^ that this agency should avoid even
the semblance of scientific authority. What is acceptable or unaccept-
able in medicine must be ^tablished by tested methods of examina-
tion aud not be made to appear as such because of the imprimatur of a
national b(wly.

j. The ngmcj ^ould come to share in the leadership of medical
inv^tigation by encouraging individual mitiative and freedom of re-
search, and with a careful avoidance of coercion and regimentation,
winch might lead not only to mediocre work but to disastrous im-
paimmnt of the spirit of cooperation, and of research itself. Indi-
vidual ^ientific curiosity, community of interest and regard for the
common w^ must in peace replace as a cohesive force the patriotism
of war.

Part III

RECOMMENDATIONS OUTLINING THE ESTAB-
LISHMENT OF A "NATIONAL FOUNDATION
FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH" AS AN INDEPEND-
ENT FEDERAL AGENCY

It is recommended tliat an independent agency of the Federal Gov-
ernment be established, to be known as the National Foundation for
Medical Eesearch.^

1 . Composition of the Foundation

The Foundation is to be composed of (a) a board of trustees, (&) a
technical boardu ^d (c) an executive secretary's ojfldce.

Board of Trustees

The board of trustees is to consist of five per^ns appointed without
regard to the Civil Service Laws by the President of the United
Stetes and subject to confirmation by the Senate. They are to be
chosen on the basis of scientific achievement and leadekhip, wide
knowledge of medical problems, capacity for administration and or-
ganization, and with reasonable regard for geographical representa-
tion. The board of trustees is to elect its own chairman.

A member of the board of trustees is to serve on a part-time basis
for a term of 5 years and is not to be eligible for reappointment. A
member appointed to a vacancy caused by death or r^ignation is
eligible for reappointment for a full term providing his short term has
been less than 2 years. No two members serving simultaneously
shall be chosen from the same institution. The successor to a retiring
member shall not be chosen from the same institution except in
unusual instances.

The original members of the board of kustees are to be appointed
for 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 years, respectively, in order to assure continui^
and rotation . Whenever a vacancy occ^ or is to occur, the chairman
is to transmit to the President of the United States for Ms information
a list of suitable candidate. In prepmng this list, the chairman is
instructed to seek the advice of the Prudent of the National Academy
of Science.

The chairman is to represent the Foundation in matters ajBf^ting
medical research where the into^ts of other Government agencies
are involved.

i Whmwei tSm 6mm M tRtmiSidd.

a«ry medidiie, biology, eatomciogy, pratoaootogy, aad simOar Mds.

59

The board of trustees is to meet Bot less than once each month.
At least one regular meeting each year is to be held in each of the
folio geographical arc^i North Atlantic, South Atlantic, North
South Central, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific coast areas.

The board of trustees is to determine the broad policies of the
Foundation. It is to appoint members of the technical board and is
to hsTe the authority to approve or disapprove all recommendations
of the technical board. It may request the chairman and other
members of the technical board to sit with it whenever necessary .

The board of trustees is to establish necessary liaison offices to
insare a bm exchange of information with all domestic and foreign
n^enoiess or service interested in medical research. It is to invite the
Siu^aons G^eral of the Army, the Navy, the United States Public
HeSth Service, the Air Force, or responsible officers of other domestic
or foreign oi^anizations as may be indicated, to appoint appropriate
liaison officers to sit with it during deliberations of interest to those
agenci^- Liaison officers are not to have the power of vote.

Remuneration. — ^Each member of the board of trustees is to he
paid a sjjary of seventy-five hundred dollars ($7,500) per annum for
that portion of his time which he devotes to the services of the Founda-
tion. In accordance with Government regulations, a member is to
receive travel expenses and suitable per diem to cover other costs
when traveling.

Technical Board

A tedbnical board, composed initially of 12 persons, is to be ap-
pointed, wifeout 3Fe!gard to the Civil Service Laws, by the board of
tmitees. fie members of the tedmical board are to be chosen on
the basis of Iheir knowledge and experience in special fields of medical
r^earch and the related sciences, and with reasonable regard for
gec^rsphieal representatiom The office of a board member is to
rernam in his parent institution. At the discretion of the board of
trustees tfie membership of the technical board may he increased
or decreased in number.

A memlw of the technical board should not ordinarily be cmot-
sidered digibl© for reappointment, but a retired meinber jnay be
appointed to the board of trusted. A member appqmlied to ffl
an unexpired term is ei^ble for reappointment for a Mtt term. No
two members serving simultaneously shall be chosen from the same
iiBtitution. fie succ^sc^ to a retiring member shall not be chosen
frpm s^e institution except in unusual instances.

The chairman of the technical board is to be designated by the
board of taistc^. He is to represent the technical board before the
trufliees, B to call meetings of the technical board as frequently as
nec^s«^y is to be responsible for the supervision of the activities
of the beard the preparation of reports required by the board
of trustees. " ' .. Z'

fla originai members of tiie technical board are to be appointed
in groups of 4 to serve 2, S, and 4 years, respectively, in order to
aasure, continuity and ro-lationL, ^

Beml^^naMm.—Eadk member of the technical board is to serve
on a pm^lime basis for S years, and is to receive a salary to be deter-
mined by the Board of Trustees, but not to exceed five thousand
dd&rs a ymr for that portion of his time which he devotes

to the services of the Foundation. In accordance with Govenunent
regulations, a member is to receive travel expenses and suitable
per diem to cover other costs when traveling.

Aides. — ^Each member of the technical board may, with the ap-
proval of the technical board, appoint one or more aides without
r^ard to the Civil Service Laws. These aides are to be selected
on the basis of qualification in a special research field and are to
serve on a part-time basis for periods up to 3 years.

As determined by the board of trustees, aides are to be compensated
for time spent in the work of the Foundation, and when traveling
are to receive travel expenses in accordance with Government regu-
lations and a suitable per diem to cover other costs. ^

As aides are scientiste in a potentially productive period, pro-
vision is to be made to insure that they remain professionally active,
and that service with the technical board does not jeopardize their
academic careers.

Committees. — The technical board is to appointfad hoc committees
to advise with a particular member on medical problems. Members
of such committees are to be appointed consultants with per diem
compensation up to twenty-five dollars ($25), and in accordance with
Government regulations are to receive travd expenses and suitable
per diem to cover other costs when traveling.

Aides and committees appointed for a tedmical b6ard member are
to be discharged on the expiration of tie memher^s term, but continued
service may be invited by the member^s successor.

Authority of the technical hoard. — The technical hoard is to receive,
review and recommend to the board of tnistees on all requests for
general researdfi funds, fellowships, and grants-in-aid.

It is to take such steps as are necessary to put approved pre^rams
into effect.

It is to maintain reasonable supervision of work under general
research funds and grants-in-aid and of the activities of Fdlows, and
keep the trustees informed on the progress of this work.

It is to arrange for the preparation of reports or appraisals as re-
quested by the board of trustees.

Its members are to keep themsdves informed on the status of per-
tinent medical problems, to which end they are authorized to convene
roimd-table discussions, to invite (X)mpetent persons to prepare sum-
maries of specific problems, and to seek authoritative information in
any other appropriate manner.

It is to receive and consider recommendations from individual
investigators with regard 'to the further development of problems of
possible scientific interest.

Office of the Executive Seciekfry

A full-time executive secretary is lo be appointed by the board of
trustees after consultation wilb appropriate Cfeveomment fiscal and
accounting agendm. 'Hie exiwutive secretary to oigamze adminis-
trative, fiscal, and accounting office fw the wnduct of the busing of
the Foundation. Fiscal actions approved by the Ixmrd of trustees
me to be put into ^ect by the exemtive secretary and Ms affiliated
officers.

Except for the executive secretary, ail rnemlws of the staff of the
executive sepretarj are lo be drawn fmm qualified civil-service lists.

61

2. Functions of the Foundation

The functions of the Foundation are to be (a) to further medical
resmrch by providing jSnancial aid through general research funds,
fdObwshiiB and grants-in-aid; (b) to coordinate research in progress
and to initiate new work considered essential; (c) to establish necessary
liaison to secure a free exchange of medical information.

Financial Aid

a. Gefwrtd research funds. — On application, a block grant may be
miyle to a medical school for general use over a period of 1 to 10 years
for the promotion of research provided the institution can present
evidence that it can efficiently utilize for scientific research the funds
requested, and that it is prepared to give a reasonable accounting of
the expenditure of funds received. The institution is to have a re-
search committee, drawn preferably from the executive faculty and
active investigators, which is to be informed on all local research ex-
penditure, and is to be reponsible for the administration of the grant
and for rei^rts and accounting required by the Foimdation.

The institutions are to be allowed wide latitude in the expenditure
of general research funds, but these expenditures are to be subject
to review periodically by the Foundation, which is to have the power
of cancellation.

It is recommended that general r^arch funds be used in part for
junior felowsinps to be awsraoi, widiout reference to the Foundation,
to students wwUng for an M.I). demroo? order to permit the re-
cipients to devote 1 or 2 years on a mil-time basis to acquiring more
specialized knowledge of the tedmiques of medical research than is
po^ible during the regular course. Junior fellowdiips are not to be
used as scholarships to defray medical school tuition. The policy of
each iiBtitution in regard to number of Junior Fellows, the value of
the stipend, and other features of general importance is to be subject
to review by the Foundation.

Formal discussions concerning renewal of general research funds
diould be completed 1 to 3 years in advance of termination.

If an application for general research funds is refused, the applicant
( iiBtifeutiqn may appeal directly to the board of trustees for a review.

In aloeating general research funds, the Foundation is to consider
both the imnawate needs and promise of development of the applicant
institutions, and is to take cognizance of the effects of such fimds
upon the support of medical schools by their parent institutions.

Equipment purchased under general research funds is to become the
property of the institution to which the block grant is made.

b- Fmamshijm. — Fellowships are to be awarded by the Foundation,
for a period of 1 to 3 years, to approved applicants having the M. D.,
Pb.D., or DD.S. degree or equivalent attainment, to enable the
ledipients to acquire research training, to undertake research, to learn
£f>eaal techniques, or to pursue studies in related sciences. Fellow-
may be renewed for a period up to 3 years, but only in excep-
tional instances should the term of a fellowship exceed 6 years. The
holder of a feIlowshij> is to be publicly designated as a '^Fellow of
ttie National Foundation for Mescal Ke

In the initial selection oi Fellows, potentialities for development
of leadership in medicine should be weighed as heavily as past per-
formance in research work. Fellows are to be encouraged to take
further work in the fundamental sciences to remedy any deficiencies
in a contemplated research career, but fellowships are not to be used
to provide residencies, or primarily for obtaining postgraduate degrees
or W qualifying for Certification by the Specialty Boards.

Fellowships are primarily intended to enable men to receive re-
search training and to engage in active research, but they should
include experience in teaching or the clinical care of patients, as these
exercises are essential to balanced research training and are imperative
if a Fellow is to fit himseK for maximal usefulness in medicine or the
medical sciences.

Fellowship stipends are to he determined by the Foundation with
due consideration of university salaries paid persons with equivalent
training and experience, and to the desirability of encouraging rela-
tively senior men to devote themselves to research.

Research expenses of a Fellow may be met by the Foundation. If
an institution matches insurance or annuity payments by its faculty,
a similar payment is to be added by the Foundation to the Fellow’s
stipend.

A fellowship is to lapse automatically if a FeUow transfers to
another institution without approval by the Foimdation.

c. Grants-in-aid. — On application, grants-in-aid extending for 1 to
10 years may be made to universities, medical schools, or other
nonprofit scientific institutions for the support of specific projects or
of specified investigators. Applications for grants-in-aid are to
carry the endorsement of the applicant institution. Formal dis^
cussions concerning renewal should be completed prior to the begin-
ning of the last ttod of the period of the grant.

Reasonable overhead expenses may be included in the financial
statement accompanying a r^u^t for a grant, but overhead pay-
ments are not to be automatic.

Reports are to be submitted under each grant as required by the
Foundation. Equipment purchased under a grant is to become the
property of the institution to which the grant is made.

If a request for a grant or for the extension of a grant is refused,
the applicant institution may appeal directly to the board of trustees
for a review.

Coordination and Initiation of Research

The Foundation is to consider methods designed to stimnlate re-
search, to improve research conditions in institutions where it is now
not well developed, to effect coordination among investigators working
in a common field, and to facilitate publication, dissemination, and
experimental application of scientific information.

tee Foimdation is to initiate and support such new research work
as may be indicated, but it is not itself to engage in research. Its
int^rative and catalytic efforts are to be carried out by rewmmenda-
tion and invitation rath^ than by direction.

63

3. Reports

The Foundation is to report annually to the President, in the form

he requmte, on the progress of work carried out under its authority.
With the Prffiident*s approval, all or part of the annual report is to
be publish^.

4. Authority To Modify Procedure

The oi^anizatioE and responsibility of the Foundation are to be
dinned as broadly as possible. The authority to make and alter
specific r^ulations and to experiment in procedures for fostering
m^cai r^earch is to be incorporated in the charter of the Foimda-
tion.

64

Appendix 3

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND
THE PUBLIC WELFARE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Fa^

Letter of transmittal 66

Members of the Committee 66

Preface 67

Summary 6S

A National Research Foundation 69

Research carried on by the Federal Government - 69

Environmental aids to industrial research 70

Chapter

L Introduction - 71

II. Present status and trends in American science 75

A. The nature of scientific research 75

B. I>evelopment of ^ientifie research in the United

States 77

C. The national research budget 79

* IIL Scientific research in American universities and colleges 84

A. The university as a research environment 84

B. Form of aid to universities 87

* IV- Scientific research in the Government service 93

A. Suggested reforms 94

^ V. Aids to industrial research and technolcgy 101

A- Assistance to technical clinics for small busing

enterprise 101

B. Grants to nonprofit industrial institutes for funda-

mental research^ 102

C. Encouragement for new scientific enterprises 103

D. Strenrthening the patent system 103

^ VL Taxation and research 104

A. Present tax treatment of research and development

expenditures — 104

B. Recommendations for legislative action 105

C. Broad tax considerations 106

" VII- International scientific cooperation 107

A. Support and sponsorship of international coop^

ative scientific enterprises^, 107

- VIII. A National Research Foundation 109

A. Oiganisation 109

B. Powers aad reepoiMpbililaes 110

C. Patent polefes Foundation — 111

Appendix A. library aldsi 112

Appendix B- Analym of university res^rch expenditures— 116 ,

LEHER OF TRANSMITTAL

April 16, 1945.

Dbab De. Bush: It is with satisfaction that I hand you herewith
a copy of the report of the Committee on Science and 4he Public
Welfare.

We have had a number of meetings with good attendance and
excellent discussion. We have unanimously agreed on practically all
^ential points. If the report aids in any degree in completing the
task assigned you by the late President Eoosevelt all members of the
committee, I feel sure, will be gratified.

Sincerely yours,

Isaiah Bowman, Chairman^
Committee on Science and the Public Welfare,
De. Vannevae^ Bush, Director^

Office of Scientific Research and Develo^entj
16th and P Streets NW.

Washington^ Z>. (7.

MEMBERS OF THE COMMIUEE

Isaiah Bowman, Chairman, President, Johns Hopkins University.
John T. Tate, ^ce Chairman, Researdi Professor of Physics, Uni-
versity of Minn^ta.

W. Rupert Madauiin, Secretary, Pmfessor of Economics, Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology.

Oliver E. Buckley, President, Telephone Laboratories.

Waiter C. Coffey, President, University of Minnesota.

C^car S. Cox, Deputy Administrator, Fore%n Economic Administra-
tion.

Bradley Dewey, Pr^ident. Dewey & Almy Chemical Company.
Qarence A. Dyfcstra, Provc^t, University of California at Los
Angeles,

Caryl P. Haskins, Director, Haskins Laboratories.

Edwin H. Land, President and Director of Research, Polaroid Cor-
poration.

Charl^ E. MacQuig^ Dean of Engineering, Ohio State University.
Harold G. Moulton, President, Brookings Institution.

J. Hugh O'Donnell, President, Notre Dame University,
it Professor of Physics, Columbia Univa:sity (recipient of
Nobel Award).

Wmm Weaver, Director for Natural Sciences, Rockefeller Founda-
tion.

Wilson, Chairman of the Board, Standard Oil Company of
Willmm E. Wrafcher, Director, U. S. Geolc^cal Survey, Department

§6

PREFACE

Dr. Isaiah Bowman was named by Dr. Vannevar Bush, Director
of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, as chairman of a
committee to consider this question raised by President Roosevelt
in his letter of November 17, 1944, to Dr, Bush: ^‘What can the Gov-
ernment do now and in the future to aid research activities by public
and private organizations? The proper roles of public and of private
research and their interrelationship should be carefuUy considered,*^

The Bowman Committee has confined its attention to research
activities in the natural sciences, engineering, and agriculture.
Clinical medicine has been considered by another committee. The
support of the social sciences, it is believed, represents an important
problem in iteelf which should be handled as a separate issue.

In analyzing the task assigned to the Bowman Committee, the
project was divided into the following major questions:

1. What should the Government do to assist research in uni-
versities and nonprofit research institutes?

2. What should the Government do to assist scientffic rmerndt
conducted by the Government itself?

3. What ^ould the Government do to assist research in in-
dustry?

4. WTiat changes, if any, should be made in our present tax
structure to stimulate industrial research?

5. What policy should the Government follow to enc^^urag©
greater international interchange of scientific knowledge and
engineering art after the war?

6. WTiat are the proper roles of public and private research?

The Committee was divided into working groups to consider each
of these questions except the last. The whole report is concerned
with the basic problem of the proper roles of public and private
agencies in scientific research. The analyses undertaken by the
worl^g groups have been combined into a final report which is
submitted herewith.

In addition to numerous meetings of the subcommittees the main
Committee has held three full meetup, the fiirst of which was devoted
to resolving tihie problem into its major parts, the second to discu^ing
tile concept of the Federal Government in relation to r^arch, and
the last to considering tiie recximmeadations of the subcommittee.

67

SUMMARY

Interest in the question of Federal aid to research reflects wide-
spread recognition by the American people that the security of a
modem nation depends in a vital way upon scientific research and
, technoIogic«d progress. It is equally clear that public health, higher
standards of hving, conservation of national resources, new manu-
facturing which creates new jobs and investment opportunities— in
short, the pros|)erity, well-being and progress of the American
Nation— all require the continued flow of new scientific knowledge.
Even if a nation’s manpower declines in relative numbers, even if
its geographical frontiers become jSxed, there always remains one
inexhaustible national resource — creative scientific research.

In view of the importance of science to the Nation, the Federal
Government, by virtue of its charge to provide for the common
defense and general welfare, has the responsibility of encouragi^
and aiding scientific progress. It has recognized this responsibility
by providing research laboratories within the structure of government,
by providii^ a climate of law within which industry could progress
on its own initiative, and by making limited appropriations to certain
tjp^ of educational institutions. Study of the present status of re-
has shown convincingly that certain basic parts of our research
steictee require increased financial support. Since the evidence is.
dear that private sources cannot assume the entire burden, the com-
mittee has been forced to the conclusion that an increased measure
of ^act Federal aid is necessary. We believe that it is possible to
devise methods whereby great benefits to research may be achieved
by siMsh aid without samficing the freedom essential for scientific
advance or the academic independence of our traditional institutions.

We therefore urge that the Federal Government take a more active
interest in promoting scientific r^aaxeh, and in assuring that the
Nation gain therefrom the benefits of increased security and increased
welfare. We are convinced that the most effective way for the Federal
Government to serve th^ purpose is to provide to our educational
institutions and research institute support for basic research and
training for r^earch. By so doic^, the Government will increase the
flow of new knowledge and the supply of young scientists trained in
research. It is on this new knowledge that applied science must
build, and it is from the ranks of those trained in research that the
leaders in applied smence must come.

If this new knowledge and an ad^uate supply of trained men are
provided, it is our opinion that the ordinary course of industrial
^tivity can be relied upon to convert to practical application in
industry most of the advances made in research. However, we be-
lieve that in certain instances measure can and should be devised
to ep)efite the transition from scientific discovery to technological
appleation. To this end we recommend that procedure be devised

for supplying research information to small companies and stimulating
them in the application of the latest technology.

In the international sphere the lack of any official Federal support
for scientific meetings or experimental programs organized on an
international scale has been a frequent source of embarrassm^t and
difficulty. By providing official recognition and financial support to
such undertakings the Government could do much to facilitate scien-
tific interchange and promote international good will.

A National Research Foundation

We believe that our national and international needs and re^onsi-
bilities in the field of science require the creation of a new Federal
instrumentality. We therefore recommend that a National Eesearch
Foundation be created for the promotion of scientific research and
of the applications of research to enhance the seciirity and welfare
of the Nation.

The control of the Foundation should be in the hands of a board of
trustees. This board should be appointed by the President of the
United States from a panel nominated by the National Academy of
Sciences.

The Foundation shall be empowered, among other things, to:

1. Distribute funds in support of scientific research in educa-
tional and nonprofit research institutions, such research to be
wholly imder the control of such institutions.

2. Initiate and finance, in appropriate a^enci^, research proj-
ects for which existing facilities are tmav^able or inadecjuate.

3. Establish scholarships and fellowships in the natural sciences.

4. Promote dissemination of scientific and technical informa-
tion.

5. Support international cooperation in science by providing
financial aid for international congresses, worldwide associations
of scientific societies and scientific research programs organised
on an international basis,

6. Devise methods of improving the transition between pure
research and its practical applications in industry.

Research Carried on by the Federal Government

Research carried on directly by the Federal Government repr^ents
an important part of our total research activity and needb to be
strengthened and expanded after the war. Expanmon, however,
should be limited to fields of inquiry and s^vice which are of public
imTOrtance and are not adequacy carried on by private enterprise.

To increase the effectivene^ of research done within the various
departments and laboratories of Government a*number of important
dmiges in existing practice are dmirable.

1. The most important sin^e factor in scientific and tedmical
work is the quality of personnel employed. Separate and distinct
procedure for recamiting and classifying srientific persqnnd 'are
warranted by the exacting tedbnical requirements in tiiese
services. No one <iiange from current practice would do more
to improve the qudi^ of r^eardk conducted by the Government

69

than to establish a separate branch of the CivE Service for
scientific and technical positions*

2. A general up-grading of positions and salaries in the scientific
services of Government, accompanied by a careful selection of new
talent, would be a major contribution to improvement of the
quality of r^earch conducted by the Government.

3. Eesearch programs of Government should be assured in
terms of their long-run objectives. Appropriations by Congress
to the principal Government scientific departments should be
made in lump sums for broad programs of research extending over
several years. Appropriations within the assured sum might
tlien be made available as at present in the annual budget.

4. A permanent science advisory board should be created to
consult with Government agencies and to advise the executive
and legislative branches of government as to the policies and
budgets of Government agencies engaged in scientific research.

Environmental Aids to Industrial Research

The structure of Federal taxation and the operation of the patent
system have an important impact on the research and development
policies of industry. In designing postwar taxes, consideration should
be given to increasing incentives to industrial research. The proper
teeatment of research costs for tax purposes should receive clear
l^islative definition. Specific recommendations on tbia point are
included in the maia body of the report.

1®.

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

President Eoosevelt has asked:

IVliat can the Government do now and in the future to aid research activiti^ by
public and private organizations? * * * The information, the techniques, and
the research experience developed by the OflSce of Scientific Reseajrch and Develop-
ment and by the thousands of scientists in the universities and in private industry,
should be used in the days of peace ahead for the improvement of the national
health, the creation of new enterprises brin^g new jote, and the betterment of
the national standard of living. I^ew frontiers of the mind are before us, and if
they are pioneered with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we have
waged this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful employment and a fuller
and more fruitful life.

The President's request reflects widespread recognition by the
imerican people t^t the security of a modem nation depends in a
¥ital way upon scientific research and technological progr^. It is
^ually clep that public health, Mgha: standards of living, wnserva-
tion of national resources, new jobs and investment opportuniti^ —
short, the prosperity, well-being and process of the American Nation —
all require the continued flow of new scientific knowledge. Even if a
nation’s manpower declines in relative numbers, even if its g^graphical
frontiers become fixed, there always remains one inexhaustible national
resource — creative scientific r^aarch.

The advanced state of technology in the American e(M)nomy, of
which we are justly proud, could not have been realized without sound
institutional foundations. Our public and private universities and
nonprofit research institutes, our industrial r^earch laboratories, the
research agencies operated by the State and Federal Governments,
all constitute part of a cooperative pattern within which tremendous
achievements have already been made. We are confident that within
that same framework even greater developments in sciencje will mark
the future.

The continued progress of science is a matter of the high^t national
importance. The Federal Government, by virtue of its charge to
provide for the common defense and gener^ welfare, has the r^pon-
sibilty of encourag^ and aidio^ sudi progr^. It has recognized
this responsibility in the |mst oy providing research laboratori^
wittdn the structure of govOTunent, by |>roviding a climate of law
within which industry could advance on its own initiative, and by
making limited appropriations to certain tyx)es of educational and
res^rch institutions. As far as the committee can determine, there
is no major dissent from the view that the first two methods of aiding

Ihe timr^s' com^e, howevw/for a' careful evalmtion of the que^^
tioiw rw^d by direct Federal «dd to private institutions. Our uni-

71

vemti^ deaxly stand in need of increased financial support if tliey are
to strengtlien their basic contributions to the scientific life of the
Nation. Financial aid may also be required to speed up the transition
between basic discoveries in university laboratories and their practical
industi^ applications. The committee has therefore felt compelled
to examine from the standpoint of public policy the question: a

substantial increase in Federal financial aid to scientific research in
educational and other nonprofit research institutions necessary and
durable?”

If the nec^ity were not clearly demonstrable, several considera-
tions might argue for the und^irability^ of such Federal support.
Th^ center upon the fear that Federal aid might lead to centralized
mntroL It is the firm conviction of the committee that centralized
control of r^earch by any small group of persons would be disastrous
whether such persons were in government, in industry, or in the
universities. There might be a danger, too, that increased Federal
aid would discourage existing sources of ^ancial support. Private
individuals might lose interest in contributing to researcb institutions
and the great foundations might turn their attention* to other fields.
The States might reduce the support given their lai^e universities.
These varied sources of support have contributed materially to the
development of vigorous centers of independent initiative throughout
the United States and prevented control by any one group.

The committee has had to weigh these considerations against an
mnijw of the adequacy of the over-all support for science in America
relative to the ne^ of society. Our national pre-eminence in the
fields of appEed r^earch and technology should not blind us to the
truth that, with r^pect to pure res^rdb. — the discovery of funda-
mental new knowledge and basic mentific principles — ^America has
occupied^ a mcomdsTj place. Our spectacular development of the
automobile, the airplane, and radio obscures the fact that they were
al based on fundamental discoveries made in nineteenth-century
Europe, From Europe also came formulation of most of the laws
governing the transformation of energy, the physical and chemical
structure of matter, the behavior of electiicity, light, and magnetism.
In recOTt years the United States has made progress in the field of
pure sdence, but an examination of the relevant statistics suggests
iJiat our ^orts in the field of applied science have increased much
faster m tiiat the proportion of pure to applied research continues to
dwrease.

Several reasons make it imperative to increase pure research at
this stage in our Mstory. First, the intellectual bants of continental
Europe, from which we fonneriv borrowed, have become bankrupt
through the ravages of war. ito long^ can we count upon those
source for fundamental science. S^jond, in this modem age, more
than ever before, pure research is the pace-mak«r of teclmological
pr«^e^. In the nmetoenth century, Yankee mechanical ingenuity,
building upon the baric discoveries of Europe^ sdence, could greatly
advance the technical arts. Today the rituation is different. Future
pre^re^ will be most striking in those highly complex fields — elec-
lioniiB, aerodynamics, chemistry — ^wMdi are based directiy upon the
foundations of modem science. In the next generation, technolo^cal
advance and b^ic scientific discovery wiH pe inseparable; a nation
which borrows its baric knowledge will be hopel^Iy handicapped in

W

the race for innovation. The other world powers, we know, intend
to foster scientific research in the future. Moreover, it is part of our
democratic creed to affirm the intrinsic cultural and aesthetic worth
of man's attempt to advance the frontiers of knowledge and under-
standing. By that same creed the prestige of a nation is enhanced
by its contributions — ^made m a spirit of friendly cooperation and
competition — to the world-wide battle against ignorance, want, and
disease.^

The increasing need for the cultivation of science in this country
is only too app^ent. Me we equipped to meet it? Tradition^
support from private gifts, from endowment income, from grants
by the large foundations, and from appropriations by State I^isla-
tur^ cannot meet the need. Research in the natural sciences and
engineerinig is becoming increas^ly. costly; and the inflationary
impact of the war is likely to heighten the ^ancial burden of uni-
versity research. The committee has considered whether industry
could or should assume most of the burden of support of fundament^
research or whether other adequate sources of private assistance are
in sight. The answer appears to be in the negative.

The committee has therefore b^jome convinced that an increased
measure of Federal aid to ’scientific r^earch is necessary. Means
must be found for administering such aid without incurring central-
ked control or discouraging private support.

Basically this problem is but one example of a series of similar prob-
lems of government in a democracy. Many of our important pontical
decisions involve the nec^sity of balancii^ irreducible natioi^
functions against the free play of individual initiative. It is the belief
of this committee that if certain basic safeguards are observed in de-
signing a plan for Government support to science, grmt beasts can
be adbievm without loss of mitiative or freedom.

The experience of the land^rant collies represmts an important
precedent. The scale of Fede^ aid has been modest but has led to
very s^iificanl results e^ecially in agriculture; it has not lad to
dominaMon by smafl groups; it h^ not been capricious and uncertain.
On the contrary, it has progre^ed on a slowly expanding scale for over
80 years. No evidence has been brought before the committee that
this sort of Federal aid has discouraged other sources of support. The
land-grant colleges are example of harmonious cooperation among
State and Federal Governments, private individuals, and industry,
American experience with support of higher education by State and
local governments has been extremely satisfactory, our vigorous Stete
universiti^ standing as impressive testimomals.

The committee forces that an increased measure of Federal sup-
port will raise new problems. We have, therefore, carefuHy conadered
the possibility of increasing Federal aid for sdaitlfic r^earch without,
at the same time, introducing undesiraMe patemalifflu. For, in oid^
to be fruitful, scientific research must be free — ^free from the influence
of pr^^ire groups, free from the necessity of produong immediate
practical results, free from dictation by any ceniral boMul ^

Many have hem. impre^ed by the way in which certain fields of
appli^ science have l^efited, dinring the war, from an increased
measure of planned coordination mkd direction. It has thus b een very
natural to su|^po^ that p^c^me research would ben^t equafly from
the apfimaticm cd,, similar methods. Thers are, of conrse, types of

73

scieDtific inquiry that require planning and coordination, and a large
degree of control is inexdtable and proper iii applied research. How-
e¥er, there are seyeral reasons why pure science in peacetime cannot
wisely or usefully adopt some of the procedures that have worked so
wel during the war. War is an enterprise that lends itself almost
ideally to planning and regimentation, because immediate ends are
more rigid^ prescribed than is possible in other human activities.
Much of the success of science during the war is an unhealthy success,
won by forcing applications of science to the disruption or complete
displacement of that basic activity in pure science which is essential
to continuing applications. Finally, and perhaps most inaportant of
all, scientists willingly suffer during war a de^ee of direction and con-
trol which they womd fed intolerable and stultifying in times of peace.

It is the belief of this committee that increased support of research
in American universities and nonprofit institutes wiU provide the most
positive aid to science and technology. But we do not believe that
any pr^am is better than no program*— that an ill-devised distribu-
tion of Federal funds will aid the growth of science. Our concrete pro-
posals seek to augment the quality as well as the quantity of scientific
research. We bSieve that there are historical precedents of Govern-
ment aid to research, both in this coxmtry and abroad, which show the
po^ibUity of providing, within the framework of sound administrative
practice, sustained nonpolitical grants which would operate in such a
manner as to call forth from emting institutions even greater initia-
tive, effort, and accomplishment.

The organimtion or instrument finally set up should not attempt to
play the role of an all-seeing, all-powerful planning board trying to
guide in detai the normal ^owth-processes of science. The fimt and
most essential requirement is that the groups administering a program
of research assistance be composed of mm of the highest inte^ty,
ability, and ^roerience, with a thorough understanding of the problems
of science. The committee believes that an independent Govern-
ment body, created by the Congress, free from hampering restrictions,
staffed with the ablest personnel obtainable, and empowered to give
sustained and far-sighted assistance to science with assurance of
continuing support, would constitute the best possible solution.

It is our beh^ timt the desired purposes can best be served and the
p<^ible dangers minimked by centering the responsibility for this
program in a new organization, a Nation^ Eesearcb Foundation,
whose function should be the promotion of scientific research and of the
applications of research to enhance the security and welfare of the
Nation.

14

Chapter li

PRESENT STATUS AND TRENDS IN AMERICAN

SCIENCE

To aid in formulating policies of assistance to research, it will be
helpful first to analyze the important types of scientific activity and to
sketch the development of the principcd types of American scientific
institutions.

J A. THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Scientific research may be divided into the following broad cate-
gories: (1) pure research, (2) background research, and (3) applied
rese^ch and development. The boundaries between them are by
no means dear-cut and it is frequently difficult to assign a given
inv^tigation to any single category. On the other hand, typical
instances are easily recognized, and study of them reveals that each
category requires different institutional arrangements for maximum
devdopment.

I. Pure Research

Pure research is research without specific practical ends. It results
in general knowledge and imderstanding of nature and its laws. This
general knowledge provides the means of answering a la^e number of
important practicd problems, though it may not give a specific
^lution to any one of them. The pure scientist may not be at all
interested in the practical applications of hds work; yet the devdop-
ment of important new industries depends primarily on a continuing
vigorous progress of pure sdence.

One of the pecularities of pure science is the variety of paths which
lead to productive advance. Many of the most important discoveries
have come as a result of experiments undertaken with quite different
purposes m mind. Statistically it is certain that important and
hi^y useful discoveries wil rmidt from some fraction of the work
undertaken; but the results of any one particular investi^tion cannot
be predicted with accuracy.

The unpredictable nature of pure science make® desirable the
provision of rather special drcmnstances for its pursuit. Pure re-
search dmiands from its foEowers the freedom of mind to look at
family facts from unfamiliar points of view. It do^ not always
lend HbM to organized and is refractory to direction from

dbove.' In fact, aowhere fe Ih© principle of froedom more im-

75

portant for significant achievement. It shoiJd be pointed out, how-
ever, that many branches of pure science increasingly involve the
cooperative efforts of numerous individuals, and expensive capital
equipment shared by many workers.

By general consent the discoveries of pure science have for centuries
been Wnediately consi^ed to the public domain and no valid
prec^ent exists for restocting the advantages of knowledge of this
sort to any inchvidual, corporation, State, or Nation. All the people
are the beneficiaries. Governments dedicated to the public welfare,
therefore, have a responsibility for encouraging and supporting the
production of new faowledge on the broadest possible basis. In the
united States this responsibility has long been recognized.

^ 2. Background Research

The preparation of accurate topographic md geologic maps, the
collection of meteorological data, the determination of physical and
chemical constants, the description of species of animals, plants, and
minerals, the establishment of standards for hormones, drugs, and
X-ray therapy; these and similari types of scientific work are here
grouped togemer under the term background research. Such back-
ground knowledge provides essential data for advances in both pure
and applied sdence. It is also widely used by the en^eer, the phy-
sician and the public at large. In contrast to pure science, the objec-
tives of this type of research and the methods to be used are reason-
ably dear before an invest%atioii is undertaken. Thus, oomprehax-
sive programs may be mapped out and the work carried on by rela-
tivdy laige numbers of trained personnel as a coordinated effort.

Sdentific work of tto characto is necessarily carried on in all types
of research organizations — ^in univerriti^, in industry, and ih Govern-
ment bureaus. Much of it evolve as a nec^sary byproduct either
of applied research or of development. Only very rarely, however,
dom the knowledge obtained emerge in patentable . form and the
public welfare is usually best served by prompt publication of the
results.

Th^e seems to be litlle disagreement with the view that these sur-

Sand descrip^ns of basic facts and the determination of stand-
^ proper fidds for Goveriment action and that centralization of
certain aspects of this work in Federal laboratories carries many
advantages. There are lew private organizations equipped to carry
out more than a ®uaH fraction of the researeh needed in these fidds.
And it is obvious, for example that topographic maps are most useful
when majB for the entire country observe similar rules in r^ard to
s^e, contour lin^, conv^tionai rnarkin^ for roads, dwdlings, etc.
Similarly, standard units for hormone smoiid be l^ed on r^orm
test procedures and be slated, so far as is posdMe, in uniform units.
The Federal Governmmt has recognized responsibilities in

principle and the Bureau of Standarcm serves as an exc^ent ekample
of how such work can be <»rried out most effidentiy.

Becent technical advance ill sudb fidds as ^mthetic dremiafay and
industrial biology have r^ulted m a siream of new compcMnds and
materials too rapid for present laboratories to catalogue. Many sub-
stances of gimt po^tial usefuln^ are eithar i»mpletdy unsown,
or thdr propwti^ inadequately described. Ckmiplex unnerals

76

as coal, and a wealth, of agricoltiiral products, are composed of chemical
compounds, any one of which may become the basis of a new industry.
What is needed is enough knowledge about their potentialities to
justify the private investment necessary for their practical application.
If the problem is left entirely in private hands, progrm may be very
slow. At present, only the la^er industrial laboratories have the
capacity to engage extensively in such research. It seems desirable,
therefore, for the Government to arrange for work of this sort, either
in its own laboratories or in outside institutions, and to make the
r^ults of this research generally available in a systematic manner.

< 3. Applied ResearcK and Development

Applied research and development differs in several important
r^pects from pure science. Since the objective can often be d^nitely
mapped out beforehand, the work lends itself to organized effort. If
successful, the r^ults of applied research are of a definitely practical
or commercial value. The very heavy expenses of such work are,
therefore, undertaken by private organizations only in the hope of
ultimately recovering the funds invested.

In several fields, admittedly, such as agriculture and in various
special industries where the individual producing units are small and
widely dispersed, the presence of a profit motive does not ensure the
existence of ade5[uate r^earch and development. The substantial
research work initiated by the Department of Agriculture has devel-
oped in response to these special n^ds.

The distinct^n between applied and pure research is not a hard and
fast one, and industrial scientists may tackle specific problems from
broad fundamental viewpoints. But it is important to emphasaze
that there is a perverse law governing research: Under the procure
for immediate results, and ml^ dmberate polid^ are set up to
guard against this, rtsearck mmriMp irwm out fwe.

The moral m dear: It is pure research which deserves and require
special protection and specially assured support

B. DEVELOPMENT OF SaENTIFlC RESEARCH IN THE

UNITED STATES

During the colonial period of American history, scientific work was
carried on in random, sporadic fashion, and for the moat jwi outside
the universities. Eranklin and Jefferson are outstandii^ examp]^ of
tile t3rpe of gifted ^oaateur whose Muence uixm Am, mean aamce
continued to be fdt wdl into the nineteeath ©eatay. In the first
dec^es of &e Republic, the older American edi^ea began to give
sdence increased attention in tiie cniiwsiiluin. ^ But despite the
presence on their facidties eff sudh oulstandii^ individuala as the
Siijmans, Louis Aga^, and Joseph Henry, it cannot be conduded
that tile collies were active centers of researdiy m that science
reedved much ftmphasaa in ii^titutions which, if they wwe not ^
eisdusivel^ cmisceoaed with rel%ious instruction as heretofore, were still
devc^ed, to^ tiie ide^ of a H^ral education the linm ol skid
(hfcsdcal and Mteary tr^tion.

With the collie enviroOmeiit inimical or at least cool towiffd the
growth of sdentSc re^arch, neith^ GovMDaneiit suppcfft nor private

71

endowment was available in the United States for the promotion of
pure research until late in the nineteenth century. This is in marked
contrast to the principal European coxmtries where, almost without
exception, science was directly supported by the governments. Grad-
ually, in response to a steadily increasing need, the Federal Govern-
ment established the scientific bureaus that it needed to fulfill its
obligations to the public. During the course of the century it created
the Coast and Geodetic Surv^, the Naval Observatory, the Depart-
mmt of Agriculture, and the Geol<^ical Survey. In 1836, to cite an
early example of Federal support of a scientific venture, the Wilkes
Exploring Expedition was authorized “to expand^ the bounds of
science and to promote knowledge.” But the practical nature of all
these activities is evident. Despite several eloquent expres^ons by
scientific men of the important long-run utility of sponsoring pure
science, the Congress turned a deaf ear to all proposals for creating
scientific institutions having anything but limited and strictly utili-
tarian purposes. _ Wasliington’s plan for a national university, and the
various suggestions for a Government-sponsored academy or a
national institution had the support of public figures like Jeffemon,
Madison, and John Quincy Adams but were unpopular in Congress
and were often strenuously opposed by the older private colleges.

If Government support for science was not forthcoming, neither was
supi^rt from private gifts or bequests. It is significant that the first
considerable sum for the support of pure science came from a foreigner,
the Englishman Jam^ Smithson, with whose bequest Congress —
after d^ating its acceptance and disposition foir nearly 10 years —
created the Smithsonian Institution.

As a result of the profound forces which were converting America in
the last decade of the nineteenth century froih an e^entiaUy backward
agricultural Nation to a world power, changes took place in our
attitudes toward science and learning and toward the encouragement
that should properly be accorded them. The State imiversities and
land-grant collies grew and prospered through generous public sup-
port. Science ^so became one of the beneficiaries of the private
fortune built up in the later nineteenth century. Whereas earlier it
had been evident that only the Government could assume the burden
of erecting and supporting an astronomical observatory, there were
BOW men like Jam^ lick with fortunes large enough to build and
endow such expensive centers of r^earch. Equally important were
the contributions of private phaanthropy in developing universities
and in the direct support of t'esearch through the creation of nonprofit
science institutions and philanthropic foundations.

Two of our b^t-known privaldj endowed institutions devoted to
pure research, the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the Rocke-
feller Institute, were created shortly after the turn of the century.
From the same gigantic fortunes stemmed the Rockrfdler Foundation
and the Carnegie Cot^ration. Their tremendous contributions to
the progress of sQeatiflc r^earch, not only in iumerica, but through^
out the world, cannot be exaggerated.

The latter part of the nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries
witnemed the development of the American medical schoofe, which
today serve as research centers not only for applied or practical
medicine but for fundamental research in many oiological problems
which are basic to medicine. The medical schools appear to have

m

beeii particularly attractive objects of private philantiiropy- Various
factors, such as the regulation of standards by the profession at large
and the active interest of two or three of the largest foundations, have
given to the medical schools of the country a uniformly advanced
status not enjoyed by other divisions of our universities. In fact, only
in the case of medical schools can the United States be said to excel an
other countries in the number of first-rate research institutions per unit
of population,

Almost equally significant is the growth of the Federal Government's
own scientific bureaus. The existing agenda and departmente,
specially the Department of Agriculture, underwent an extraordinary
devalopmmt. _ An outstanding feature was the expanding program
of grante-in-aid to the State agricultural experiment stations. The
first decad^ of the twentieth century saw the creation of a number of
new scientific bureaus and laboratories: the Bureau of Mines, the
Bureau of Standards, and the Nationa,! Institute of Health. The
first World War led to the creation of tlje principal service laboratories,
the Naval Eesearch Laboratory, for example, and the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, By 1932 the total Govern-
ment expenditure for research had risen to over 40 million dollars, more
than double the figure for 1922.

But DO factor in the gradual emergence of American science from
its dependent state is more striking than the growth of research labo-
ratories in industry. Prior to 1880 there were few, if any, commercial
laboratori^ worthy of the name; but in the last decades of the nine-
t^nth century powerful new industries, especially in the electrical
field, grew out of basic twimological discoveries and the inventive
genius of men like Bel, Edison, and Elihu Thom^n. Firms in these
new industries almost from the outset adopted the policy of maintain-
rug their lead by energetic programs of scientific and technological
research resultmg in patents bas^ in large part on the work of their
own laboratori^.

Tbe first World War provided a further stimulus to the growth of
commercial laboratories by revealmg the inadequacies of our position
in industrial rm^rch as compared to Germany, especiaDy in the
chemical field. Much of our present chemical industry, together
with its vast research potential, ^ew up in response to needs which
were demonstrated in the war, aided by the avalability of patents
seized from their former German owners.

C THE NATfONAL RESEARCH BUDGET

The over-al picture of the development of resemtsh in the United
Stat^, as reflected in the changed structure and iM^nitude of the
national research expenditures of the last 15 years, is diown in table
I and in the corresponding figure I.

Since statistical infomiatiom is nece^arily fragmemtary and dep^d-
mbiipon arbitrary definitions, most of the estimates are subject k> a
very oonmderable margin of error. Neverthdl^, the foliowing
generalizations seem warranted:

(1) Of the three principal groups engaged in w«arch, private indus-
try coiilrifeut^ by W the larg^t porlioa of the totel national exf^d-
itures, witii the Government coining next m$A the ^ucational
institulicms last* ' ''

T9

(2) Keseardbi expmditures of industry, Gk>vemment, and industrial
institute have bmi exp^ding considerably more rapidly (fig. I),
UmB. researdi in universities and science institutes.

During ti.6 war, the Government expanded its research budget
from $69,000,000 in 1940 to $720,000,000 in 1944. Not all of t^
large increase took place in Grovemment laboratories. Substantial

Table I

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH EXPENDITURES^AND NATIONAL

INCOME

Year

Natioiml

income^

Industry *

Noninrofit
industrial
research
institutes *

Government
(Fedanl
and State)*

CoDe^
and umv)^-
sities*

Recearch

Lc^titutes*

Total
sdentifLc
research ex-
pmditures

1920,

MUlkm
$74, 200
59, 400

60.700
71, 6 00
72, 100
76,000
81,600
80, 100

81. 700

87.200

77.300

60.300

42.900

42.200
49,500
54,400

62.900
7% 500
64,600
7«k8S9
7^809

96.900
122,200
1^>400
160,700

Tiumsands

$29, 468
37,400

44.000

50.000

58.000

64.000

70.000
75,928

88.000
106, OCK)
116,000
131,320

120. 000
110, 268

124.000

1 136,000

152.000
: 160,000

1 177,168

i 200,000

[ 23 4000

Tkomands

Thtmands

Thousands

Ihousands

Thousands

1921

1922. »

1£SS

$15, 615
16,336
18,087

16, 995

17, 119
17, 757
22,825

24 066

26,945

40^081

1925

1926_.-

1927.

1928

1929

1930

1931

$560

1,240

990

740

1,540

2,470

2,530

3,580

4080

5,000

6,110

9,139

14079

$20,353

$5, 212
5, 218
5, 159
4 887
4 767
4785
4 701
4 63S
4 596
4 531

4549

$166, 193

19^

1933

24840

191, 0 70

1934

1935

22,243
25, 328
33,891
40, 786
49, 382

19,286

171, 836

1M6

218, 122

19^

1938

10.39 ^

28, 496

263,722

iMcnMi

69, 136
207, 259
332, 151
561,507
71% 813

31, 450

345, 245

1941

1942

39, 575

1943

1944,

t Stum Naiiimai Mcome md Ms WoL I (Hew National Bmmii

of 'E&xmAs p. W. :

* Nattettl EescMxrees 0»K»laer M^edtdH-A Watkmi Maomee, VoL II, MdmMeM (Washing-

In, Doc^ 1938), p. I^ebmle^ O. aiid Fkid, P., MdmtrkH Beseardk and TedhmUm

CPfifcaeMato, w PA, Nataoeaf Fioiaot^ Eep. No. M-4, Jan. 1940), p. 65.

* IzK^EKfes tbe hodmtr&kl Teamrdh io^itates support prhnaTlly by contribntions finm indnstiy. Esti-
ntatod $iM)0Q<,OlDO spent by zionpmfit industrial research fostitutes for 1939 and extrapolated for other years
by the Batt^ Memorial Institute figures giTSn in thu^ pobHicatioii Rsteardk in Action (Columbus, 1944).

* Bi^>ort on Federal Gkmrnmmtezpenditmcs cm sdmtxfileic^^ Exclrales Federal grants to agrurd

tural ezperimimt 3 peroent oi Federal gcrccniment eo^penchtees estteated as equivalent to scto-

tifiiC research mpeoditures by the States^ exclusive of their grants to agilcciltDral exp^lment stations and
eollegBS and whic^ are iiwtoded in the ^pendituies by the Mter. 1940-44 Federal Gtovem-

meet %ures dc net hn^sde grants to ‘*educati(mal institutions and loundatiom.”

* The National Eesooxcee Committee reported that $SQ/)00JX)0 were spent on research by ah colleges and
ladveKSities in 1935-^ Based cn the siirvc3rs by the Bowmm Clomirnttee, it was estimated

oi tihis were fur expenditure on research in the naharal scimices. The trend shown in research axpendltures
of s large sample of universities and oolleg^ was used to extrapdlate for years other than ISSd. F%ni^ in-
dude mots from fotmdations and from the Govemmmi fm agdcultural experiment sta£HXQS.

* loraodes the endowed research institutes whidi are not connected with any industry nor an integral

part of ar^ untvexsity, such as the Rockefeller hostitute of Medical Research, the Wistar Institute, the
Oarnegle Ina^lfcatJon of Washington, the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, etc. The estimates
have besen naade upon published information and questionnaires. The trend shown m the institutions on
which oomplete mEormatioia was available was us^ to extrapolate the research expenditures iu other re-
search It was estimated that six instttutes constituted 75 percent of the total expenditures. ;

so

sums went to industry and to the universities. This resulted in
changing the trend of university research expenditures. The uni-
versities spent $28,000,000 on research in 1938, while in 1943-44 the
Office of Scientific Research and Development, alone, contracted for
$90,000,000 of research m universities and colleges.

Certain problems which should be considered in planning for a
national postwar research program, and some guidance in meeting
these problems, can be ascertamed from a study of the basic prewar
trends and relationships. Particularly important is a study of the
relative expenditures for pure and applied r^earch. According to
the best available estimate, industry before the war devoted about
5 percent of its r^earch budget; or $9,000,000,^ and Government
about 15 percent, or $7,500,000, to pure research. Colleges, univer-
sities, and endowed research institutes spent 70 percent of their
research budgets, or a total sum of nearly $23,000,000 in this way.

Total national expenditure for pure science thus amounted to ap-
proximately $40,000,000 while that for applied reached a figure of
$227,000,000, a ratio of nearly 1 to 6. In England, where the de-
velopment of industrial r^earch is, admittedly, very retarded, the
corresponding ratio of pure to applied research is estimated at 1 to
1.2.^

In the decade from 1930 to 1940 applied research was expanding
much more rapidly in the United States than was pure reseafch.
During this period industrial research expanded by 100 percent and
governmmtai research by 200 percent. Research in coU^es and uni-
versiti^ increa^ by 50 percent, and the endowed reseai^dhi instiiutm
(which were primarily devoted to pure research) declined by nearly
15 p^cent. It may be concluded, therefore, that since govemmentm
and industrial expenditure is growing so rapidly, relative to that of
&e universiti^, generous support to university r^earch is essential
if the proi^rtion of pure to applied r^earch is to he maintained at
anything like the previous relationship.

This support will have to indlude substantial expenditures for
capital facilities. The great dediae in capital outlays of privatdy
supported institutions is very striking.

ANNUAL EXPENDITURES FOR CAPITAL OUTLAY
All Institutions of Hisher Education

Million of Dollars

^ Mm ^ Bekmc*

81

Some portion of the new plant and equipment constructed during
the last few years for the purpose of war r^earch can be converted to
peacetime uses, Kevertheless, a considerable amount of new invest-
ment wiE have to be undertaken after the war. There can be no
doubt that such new construction could constitute one of the most
productive kinds of public and private investment.

Ne^ to the achievement of an adequate total volume of research
activiti^ and the establishment of a proper proportion between its
pure and applied phases, maintenance of a continuous and steady
expan^on should be considered one of the most important objectives
oi a far-ffli^led national research policy. Idle scimtific talent and a

'82:

retarded rate of scientific and technological progress have been the
usual result of economic depression. Steady maintenance of a gen-
erally high level of production and employment would naturally
obviate the necessity of special stabilization policies in respect to
r^earch and technological development. In the period of postwar
transition and possible temporary recession, however, increased
governmental expenditure may be necessa^ in order to offset the
probable reduction of research activities in industry and in privatdy
financed^ universities. Even if such a temporary recession should be
much milder than the great depression of the early 1930^s, the absolute
reduction in the national r^earch budget would be substantial since
the general level of research is now much higher than it was 15 years
ago. It is urged, therefore, that any national scientific foundation
that is established should, as far as is consistent with sound and
equitable policy, increase its grants for research in periods of depression

83

Chapter III

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN AMERICAN UNIVER-
SITES AND COLLEGES

A. THE UNIVERSITY AS A RESEARCH ENVIRONMENT

Historical development has given the sanction of tradition to the
prominent role played by the nniversities in the progress of pure
science- The advent of the agricultural and engineering schools has
also increased university interest and responsibility in the field of
appled r^arch and development-

Several factors combine to emphasize the appropriateness of uni-
versities for research. The unive^ty as a whole is charged with the
responsibility not only of maintaining the knowledge of the past and
hnpartii^ it to students but of contributing to new knowle%e of aU
kinds. The scientific worker is thus provided with colleagues who,
though they may represent widely differing fields, all have an under-
stenmi^ and i^preciation of the value of new knowledge.

The long struggle for acadennc freedom has provided our univer-
sities with the means of protecting the scientist from many of the
immediate pressures of convention or prejudice. The university at
its best provide its workers with a strong sense of group solidarity
and security, plus a substantial degree of personal and intellectnm
freedom. Bolh are essential in the development of new knowledge,
much of which can arouse opposition because of its tendency to chal-
lenge current beliefs and practices.

1. Present Status erf Pure Resecrdi in Ainercan Universities

The rapid ecspansion of univ^sity education in this country during
the present cmlropr is encouraging, hut it is wise to remember that a
laige part of this increase has been devoted to undergraduate depart-
ments and was ^pecialy designed to meet iucreased teaching re-
sponsibiliti^. More than any other country in the world, the United
Stat^ has undertaken to provide higher education on a broad base.
There has been an even more remarkable percentage rate of growth in
the number of students takiag p<^tgraduate courses in American
universities. Devrfopment of research has not^ however, paralleled
this rapid eximnsion in teaching.

2. Bockgrounds and Trends of Financial Support to

Universities

"nie support of our large private universiti^ aad collies has come |
mmuiy &om endowmait gifts and foundation grtmts. The prodigious |

84

growth of our public institutioris has been supported by appropria-
tions from tbe various legislatures. Since 1929 fundamental changes
m tbe American tax and income structure and decline in interest rates
have slowed down tbe rate of new private gifiB and endowment earn-
ings. Students' fees constitute an increasing proportion of tbe total
support of private institutions, and capital outlays in those univer-
sities are definitely on tbe downgrade. At the same time research
has become incres^ingly expensive and many State l^slatures are
finding it difiBcult to provide adequate support for such activitim in
their universities.

The science departments of universities have found it nectary,
in view of the decrease in gifts by individuals, to rely more upon in-
dustrial corporations for assistance. This may imply tbe distortion
of university research in the direction of short-range problems at
the expense of more fundamental research. Also the freedom of the
university scientist may be decreased by the introduction of some
degree of commercial contml. Undoubtedly, if proper safeguards
are maintained, cooperative research performed for industry in uni-
versities can be expected to increase in the future to the advant^e
of both parties concerned. But in this report which wishes steaduy
to emplmske the need for freedom in science, it is well to speak of
the need to guard against control of science by industry as well as
against control of science by government.

If university research is to keep pace with the growth of our econo-
my, if able people are to be attracts to collie research and teadaing,
it is dear that new sources of jSnandal support must be found. In-
comes of other profusions — doctors, lawyers, dentists, enmneers,
etc. — have increased considerably durii^ the war. The cost of living
has risen markedly. For the first time the personal income tax
bears sharply on the middle-income groups. And in the face of these
factors, professorial earnings have been frozen at a level which was
not considered to be overgenerous 15 years ago. A continuation of
this trend will certainly have an Averse effect upon the recsniitoaut
and retention of able university sdentists.

3- Immediate Effects of the War

The above trends were in evidence even before the war. Yet in
addition, the present conflict has added a number of very ^)edai
problems which will dominate the situation for a number of y^rs
to come.

First, and most important, has been the virtual cessation of train-
ing of new scientific personnel. As a result, we must simply accept
as axiomatic the fact that there will be an insufficiency of folly trained
yoimg scientists after the war and that it wiH take a wndderahle
pOTod of time to repair the de&aeney.

The war has also created a serious probl^ of reconversion and
rdiafeilitatioa for the individual sdenfet. *nie mature scholar, as
well as the advanced student whc^ curriculum had to be interrupted,
needs re-education mid readjustment. The problon is not shnply
one of returning to the qm ante bdkm. In niany cases Ihe
war has incrmsed the researdi time md ppporiiiiiities of Ammcan
.seStofeta N'TO^sarilj the conctet^aon in relativ^ few
centes^ of Ihe bulk of war res^irch wil, ^odd, be reversed in

85

time of peace. But it would definitelj not be in the national interest
if the dispersal of research staffs away from the largest institutions
should mean a marked reduction in the research opportunities and
effectivenm of university scientists.

Teaching and research are complementary activities, each aiding
and reinforcing the other. But if too much of the teaching is of a
routine, elementary character, and if the number of teaching hours is
m great as to absorb too much of the time and creative energy of the
scientists, then the two activities become competitive. Before the
war, in all but a few of the most prosperous universities, teaching
loads were exc^ive from the standpoint of optimal research output.^
The ne^ to make up for the wartime deferment of training may
necessitate the “acceleration” of educational programs to a three-
term basis for some years after the war, again with harmful effects to
r^earch.

To the well-trained university scientist now engaged in war work,
the inamediate academic outlook may have lost some of its appeal,
specially if he is research minded. For during the war he has had,
perhaps for the first time in his life, the facilities and assistance to
cayry on r^earch in a really efficient way. At the same time, indus-
trial laboratories will be bidding eagrfy for his services. University
salari^ tend to be low compared with those in industry and there
has been a steady flow of university scientists into industrial labora-
tories. Since one of the most important fruits of pure research is the
creation of outstanding applied r^earch men, it is very much in the
national interest diat mis movement take place in some degree. But
in the immediate postwar period there is danger that an undue number
of trained mdividuals may go into industry, stripping the univer-
siti^ of those who are most competent to teaich a new g«eration of
res^dh workers. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, to
maintain a favorable competitive position for universilieB r^tive to
industry. ■

Paradoxically, increasmg the teaching load of university scienfets
to meet pc^twar demands may intensify the teaching shortage through
its tendency to encourage transfers to industry. A number of partial
solutions suggest themselves, each being possible only if financial
support is available to make research opportunities more plentfful
and teaching more attractive. Numerous scientists on war work
may be encouiaged to return to their xmiversities; many of the newly
trained war mentists may be encouraged to remain in the universities;
competent scientists who bdore the war were in institutions with very
littie science teaching may be transferred to the more active centers;
finaiy, universities may decide to alter teaching methods and size of
claves for at l^t a few years after the war. These are important
short-run makeshifts. In the long run the solution will be found in
the training of more a^ieutists.

It is also vit^y important that sufficient laboratory assistance,
materials, apparatus, clerical and manual aid be provided for those
university stra members who are xmdertaking research in the natural
sciences. It is anomalous, to say the least, that universities and
coll^^ should hire first-class scientists, equip them with offices and
iaboratpiies, and then fail to provide Aem with the supplementaiy
funds nece^ary for productive research. No industrial laborakny

I Soft

would be so imprudent as to use the time of highly paid staff members
for doiug shop work.

A survey was made by this committee to make possible a quantita-
tive comparison of the support of research in universities, nonprofit
research institutions and industrial laboratories during the prewar
years. The aim was to discover just how nearly the universities were
approximating the practice, in the use of research persoimel, which
research institutes and especially industrial laboratories had found to
be economical and efficient.^ The results showed that, just prior to
the war, university science departments were spending on the direct
operating costs of research — apparatus, materials, technical assist-
ance— sumsof theorderof 10 to 40 centsforeveryJdoEar of salary paid to
members of the research staff- A figure of 15 or 20 cents per salary
dollar was typical of most departments. Figures above 30 cents
were uncommon and were considered to be distmctly liberal by stand-
ards of current university practice. By contrast, in a similar survey
of a number of industrial research laboratories, a figure ol 40 cents for
direct research expenditures, per dollar of salary paid to the r^earch
staff, was the lowest encountered.^ In most of the firms reporting,
the research expenditures ranged from $1 to $3 for each dollar of
salary. Industries have found that generous expenditures for a^ist-
ance to research workers are economical in the long run. Clearly
steps must be taken to help the universities bring their supplementary
research expenditures more into line with the best practice.

If the prewar support of research in universities was inadequate,
the postwar situation promise to be worse, unless drastic remedi^
are applied. In view of the wartime increase of some 27 percent in the
price levd of al goods,* each of the already inadequate university
research dofiars will go much less far than foore the war. It is as
though eveiy natural science department had already received a cut
in its postwar research budget of from one^uarter to one-third.

This prospect is serious for all universities but perhaps most acute
for the 25 universities just below the first half dozen in size and re-
sources. The large wartime university research laboratories have
drawn upon the intermediate universities for staffs. Such tried and
experienced men can make valuable contributions in their home insti-
tutions if adequate funds are made available. Here lies the imme-
diate opportunity from the Nation’s point of view, although much
also remains to be done at the highest and lowest levels.

B. FORM OF AID TO UNIVERSITIES

Although the Government may render important indirect aid to
universities by keeping its own laboratori^, libjrari^ and other
researti facilities at a high level of efficiency, the principal need m for
direct financial support under conditions which wiM not endanger
academic freedom and the personal inde|:^dence of the inv^tigator.

This committee do^ not feel that it is d^irable to supply these
funds by a sari« of annual 'Congre^onal appropriatmns for specific
projects; the' difficulti^> th'€se have raised within the Government s^-
vio© testify to the evib that would be inlrodui»d into the university
environment by this, practice. The pres^warion of academic freedom
require that funds be allo<»ted in a way that would minimize the
pc^sibii^* of external ccmfeol and would encourage long-term projecta

* nA*, affl Mweb II, IMK to ^mmxj 15, IWS.

87

Experience in other countries and the example of the successful
priYate foundations suggest that a largely autonomous board with a
staff of men trained in science is the most appropriate agency for
carrying on this ph^ of the Government's responsibility for scien-
tific progr^s. Recommendations for the formation of a National
Research Foundation and additional responsibilities with which it
may be charged appear elsewhere in this report. The following para-
graphs are devoted to an outline of the committee's views respecting
ite operation in relation to universities.

To rive funds intelligently in support of fundammtal research is a
difficult task and there is no generally accepted rule of procedure. The
private foundations follow a numb^ of different policies and are con-
stantly revisiig their procedures on the basis of accumulating ex-
perience. A Government board would have new and perplexing
problems stemming from its status as an arm of the Government, and
from the fact that the T&BOw:cess at its command would pr^umably
be large in comparison with those of any single university or private
foundation. The committee recommends, therefore, that such a
bcmrd be in large measure free to formulate its own rules of procedure
for allocating funds to universities, as long as th^ do not transgr^
certain broad general principles.

The most important of these general principles are as follows:

(1) The funds supplied to the universities should be used for
the support of significant research with special emphasis on the
universities' position as the chief contributor to pure science.

(2) In making grants the board should assure itself that the
university has competent and adequately trained personnel to
guide the studies.

(3) Grants to univerritieB or to men working in universities
must be made in such a way as to avoid contrm of the internal
policy of the university, so that the university and not the board
will have full responsibility for the administration of the grant
after it is once rnade.

(4) A constant effort should be made to improve the general
research level in institutions of higher education throughout the
country.

No matter on what conditions money is given to universities, the
Tey exfeteace of such support will, of course, modify university policy.
In fact, the increased emphasfe on research, which will be the object
of the Foundation, its^ constitutes a change in policy. And despite
the fact that our committee is eoncOTaed only with the natural sciences,
action fdong the lines projK^ed cannot fail to have influence on the
humanitim and the social sciences. It is our hope and belief that the
provBion of funds for the natural sciences would, in some measure,
fr^ university funds tm use in the other fields. A^de from such gen-
eral influences, however, it would be necessaiy^ to devise ways and
means of aUocating funos in large measure vMmd Sirnmning what
pmUcmiar problems am to be wom^ on and is to cmrp tfym out.
The i>rinciple of variety and d^sentralimtion of control is nowhere
more important than in scientific work, where the fostering of novelty
must be the first concern. One of the most mefiil ways of preseorving
thero opportumties is to rilow the gimtest possible latitude to the
acCTmiuated w^om of university adminibirawve dicers and faculti^.

The committee has given a great deal of thought to the technical

form in which Goyemment grants should be made in order best to
reflect these principles. It does not wish to recommend that the pro-
posed board be restricted to the use of any particular plan, as experi-
ence will undoubtedly reveal in each defects and advantages which
cannot be predicted beforehand. The committee, however, feels that
any instrumentality set up to aid research in universities should be
empowered to allocate funds in any or all of the following ways:

I. Matching Grants to Private and State Supported
Institutions

It is proposed that research funds be made available to accredited
universities, college, and en^eering schools on a matcning basis,
and in a manner that will be virtually automatic. Th^e graniB would
be contingent upon satisfying the ^ministrating board that certain
clearly stated requirements, largely of a technical bookkeeping nature
have been met by the particular institution in question. The grant
would be for fluid research purposes within the institution, rather than
to any particular department or person. Once a university were
accepted as a participant in this plan, and as long as it continued to
meet the require conditions, it would expect to receive the grant
as a regular annual appropriation, with no other control than some
form of government audit to insure that the money was, m fact, used
in support of research. The Government would match dollar for
dollar (or according to any other simple formula) the sums the
university expended for r^eareh.

Althoi:^h certain praclii^ difficulties must be recc^nized and dealt
with, many conMderalions make matching grants attractive in
principle. First, and perhaps most imjmrtant, it leaves to the re-
dpient institution complete freedom in the selection of research
programs and personnel. Serond, it encourages local supjport and
utilizes the important forces of local interest and pride, both in screen-
ing out unworthy projects and in carrying through worth-while on^.
Tmrd, the size of the grant is geaied more or less realisticaHy to the
ability of the institution to umlize it effectively. Fourth, since the
grants are largely automatic in dhiaracter, the board is freed from the
burden of investigating intensively the large number of potential
recipients and arriving at a decision in regard to the merits and defects
of each. The experience of the private foundations demonstrates
that judgments of this sort are extremely difficult and time-consuming,
even whan pursued on a small scale. The burden of work for a Gov-
ernment bo^rd with much laiger funds at its disp<ml m bound to be
far greater,

T^ere is, of cxiurse, the practical proHem of detomining r^eaareh
'Costs as distinguish-ed 6*oin other millays, Uiiiveimly wxxiiinti^
practice is by no means uniform and there are inherent difficulties
m deciding what part of the costs of laboratory space, steff salaries,
administrative ovrachead and so forth is occasioiiied ly r^emrch and
what part teadiing. Certain funds now rec^iyed by univeratic^,
imtabfy as a result 'Of contracte witib. industry, irf»«ld almcBl certainly
iml im Inalched W the Goveminm% if tiie resulting dfe-

'Covetl'es ' were to tejome ' the exdimve , the mdi»trial

'Eifficatties of Hm nature, howev^^-are not insuperable and
fijiiwiM not w*dglt heavily i^alnst the maz^ advantages of the schema

m

2. Disaetionary Grants

MatcMiag grante, however, may well be attacked as a method of
mamtaining the status quo, in which a few diversities tend to dom-
inate scientific research. It is, in fact, essential to the healthy growth
of science that the Foundation should help to spread the research
spirit as widely as possible throughout the United States. If the
recruitment of future scientific personnel is to proceed from a suffi-
ciently broad base, it is important that as large a number of studente
as po^ible be made aware of the research point of view. Many of
our c»Il^« and engineering schools are not now able to support a
significant amount of research.® The level of research practice in
these institutions can best be raised through discretionary grants.

The committee recommends, therefore, that the board of trustees
be empower^ to expend a substantial part of its funds on a discre-
tionary basis, either as grants-in-aid for promising special projects
or in the provision of large and expensive capital facilities.

a. Granfs-in-aid

Much of the funds now granted by private foundations to univer-
Bities is in the form of grants-in-aid for special purposes. These range
in size from a few hundred dollars for 1 year to several hundred thou-
sand dollars for a period of 5 to 10 years.

A Government foundation with larger sums at its command would
presumably be in a position to make appropriations of considerable
size and for long periods of time. Indeed the very magnitude of its
r^ponsibnities would require that it abstain from frittering away its
efforts on a large number of small and transitory projects.

Once proper precautions are taken to avoid obvious pitfalls, several
advantages of relatively stable grants-in-aid argue strongly for tbeir
adoption in certain circumstances. Of first importance is thte fact
that they offer what is probably the best means of supporting promis-
ing projects in institutions whose present status does not enable them
to benefit sufficiently under matching grants. In this connection
particular attention should be given to attaining a better balance of
research activity throughout the country.

b. Grants for Capifai Facilities

It has Akmdj been pointed out that any plans for expansion of
reseitrch in educational institutions will require additional inv^tment
in building and equipment. Increases in the total number of stu-
dents are expected to bring student enrollment considerably above
prewar levels and wiU bring great pressure on existing facilities
which are already overcrowded. Substantial sums wiU therefore be
require to provide adequate facilities for advance research. ^

In addition the trends in many fidds of scientific research point
toward the increasieg importance of large and highly expensive pieces
of equipment which, at present, can be purchased and maintaiaed
only by favored institutions. The astronomears were perhaps the
first to face this problem^ but now the physicist wishes to work with
a cydotion or betatron, and the biochemist with an ultracentrifuge
or mass spectrograph; and workers in many fields have need for the

» B.

m

services of computing centers or for the use of complicated calculating
equipment, such as the differential analyzer. ]Much of present-day
engineering research requires large installations of a semi-industri^
nature.

It is, accordingly, suggested that the Government could greatly
aid the coiirse of both pure and applied research by making available
th^e facilities to universities, with provisions that they should be
used cooperatively by other institutions in the region. A detaOed
proposal for the management of such faciliti^ will probably need
close study; and the needs of each center should be adapted to its
peculiar local circumstances.

This proposal appears to have a number of inherent advantage:
(1) It provides necessary facilities that would not otherwise be
readily available, and an economical and democratic way of using
them, (2) it recognizes the cooperative aspects of modern research
and provides facilities where workers could come together for a com-
mon effort and interchange of ideas, and (3) care in the placement of
such equipment would immediately stimulate and strengthen research
efforts in hitherto less favored areas.

3. Post-Doctoral Research Fellowships

Another committee under the chairmanshi|) of Dr. Moe ^ has made
a careful analysis of the problem of recruiting and training future
research workers up to the levd of the doctorate. The Moe Com-
mittee is recommending a substantial program of undergr^uate
and predoctoral science fellowships. We ^ould like to remfor<»
these recommendations by stating our belief that the need for addi-
tional perwnnel is one of the most pressing which faces undversiti^,
industiy, and government. The very heart of any successful pro-
gram of research is the existence of a strong body of highly trained
men. Adequate funds can be of immense value in giving a large
number of qualifi^ persons the opportunity for the nec^sary training
and study. Not only will provisions for undergraduate and pre-
doctoral feilowsM]^ help supply future workers, but gimts in the
latter cat^ory will immediately contribute to the productive r^earch
done in universities. Much of the actual experimental work carried
on in these institutions is done by students pursuing the Ph. D.
degree under the direction of mature investigators. Every additional
qualified student assistant thus increases the effectivene^ of the
senior staff members.

The Bowman Committee also wishes to recommmd a program of
p€»,t-doctoral fellowships as a direct aid to researdL The Natioiiai
Research Council, with funds received from Ihe Rockefdd^ Founda-
tion, has for many years wanted a number of feiowAips to iwearch
workers who have recenuj .receivecl advaii'C«i duress and wish a
year or two more to estaM^ Uifins^ve® firmly in investigative work
bef (me taking up e^steaave 'teaching responsibilitiee. A notably h^h
proporiaon of the reripients have gone on te^ distingnMiod 'Car^rs in
science or one of the dllied arts, notably m medicine. Ctoe of the
most important aspects of th^ l^ow^ps is that thdur holders

* The Moe Committee was appointed by Dr. Bnsb to assist in answering the President's question **Caii
an effective program be proposed for discoveriiK and developing scientific t^nt in American youth so that
the eontinumg future of scientific research in this country may be assured on a level comparable to what
has been done dining the wax?” (See President's letto*.)

91

have in the majority of instances used them for work at institutions
other than those in which they obtained their degrees. Thus, they
not only broadened their own training but contributed greatly to
the interchange of ideas and methods between laboratories. In the
immediate postwar period, an increase in the number of these fellow-
ships would be especially important in re-establishing in scientific
work many men who had completed their formal education before
joining the armed forces and would thus be ineligible for aid wader
Ihe G, I- Bill of Rights. The fellowships should also be heli)ful in
<»rtam fields of pure and applied science where a combination of
^ifis is required and where the cost of a thorough training is pro-
hibitive under pr^ent conditions.

4. Senior Research Fellowships

Although scholarship and fellowships such as those d^cribed
above have operated successfully on a fairly large scale in the past,
fewer opportunities exist for similar aid to the mature investigator.
One of the foundations has for several years given special attention to
Uiis field, and shortly before the war the National Research Council
instituted the Welch Fellowships in Medicine for men of relatively
advanced though hardly mature academic status. In the opinion
of the committee, however, much more needs to be done to enable
really experienced investigators to develop and utilize their talents
most effectively. The problem, in fact, appears to be far beyond the
means of private resources. Research workers who have reached the
status of assistant professor or above tend to remain in their own uni-
versiti^ and their time available for research tends to become increas-
ingly broken up. In theory, the sabbatical year gives an opportunity
for intensive research or travel, but in recent yeairs universities have
been and less able to grant such freedom from academic routine.
The iwultmg immobility of the s^or staff serves to isolate the intel-
lectual life of a university from that of its fellows, and the individuals
concerned, lacking outside stimulation, may incline more and more to
perfunctory i^rformance of routine duties. The tendency of Ameri-
. can universita^ to select full professors and department heads from
' within their own staffs only a^ravates these undesirable conditions.

Fellowships la^e enou^ to meet the salari^ of advanced academic
personnel for periods of intensive research work at their owninstitutions
or at other universiti^ would be an effective means of attacking these
problems. Such grmts offer an especially powerful tool for building
up research in iusritutions that are Just beginning to develop the
r€»^ch spirit, either by enahling €ldr faculties to receive advanced
training elsewhere or by bringing dktingoidied workers to them from
other institutions. An accompanying grant to cover the use of
rm^ch facilities should be made to me inslitution selected by the
recipient of the feBow^p.

Efforte should also be made to encourage mature scientists in
industay and govOTunent to avail themselv^ of tiie opportunity
provide in this prc^ram to do fundamental research in universities
of own choice. This should help in part to speed the transition
between pure r^earch and its practical applications.

Chapter IV

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE GOVERNMENT

SERVICE

An analysis of the activities of the various scientific bureaus gives
convincing proof that the recognized responsibilities of the Gbvem-
ment in scientific research are wide indeed. The types of research in
which it is directly engaged^ may be roughly classified under three
headings: (1) research that is essential to the effective operation of
Government departments; (2) research of broad scientific and economic
importance that has long-range value to the Nation and for which the
Fede^ GovOTiment has assumed a large share of the responsibility
(particularly important has been Government research for industries
made up of many small units) ; and (3) technological research of public
concern, which is either too expensive or whose success is too problem-
atical or too far distant to attract the research efforts of commercial
ente^rise. In this cat^ory woidd also be placed research prc^rams,
requiring elaho^te coordination, which the Government is peculiarly
well-fitted to direct.

Much of Government research is of wide scope and long-range
character. It is predominantly a t^tm affair, and often involve the
correlation and migration of a Nation-wide efforL with the Govern-
ment enlisting the cooperation of investigators mom industry and
universities tnioughout the countaw. The development of the contract
mechanism for sponsoring research has been a most important factor
in this type of cooperation. The planning, organization and succ^sful
administration of such far-reaching research programs often raise
problems much more complex than those encoxmtered in the operation
of laboratories devoted exclusively to specific sciences.

The general problem of improving the conditions under which the
Government conducts research, and the special problem of coordinatr
ing the various scientific activities of the Government, hm been
previously considered by a number of other committee who have
reported to the Congr^ or tp the Pr^ident. In 1884, a commitl^ of
the National Academy of Sciences reported to the Congress on the
condition of several of the most impcnrtaat scieiitific bureaus. This
committee recommended the consoldatiba of the four a^nci^ under
consideration into a sin^e Departemt of Science, or, if mat not
deemed practical, the creation of an advisory ‘^permanent oomm^ion'*
changed with «>ordiBating and improving me sciartific ^rvices of the
Government. Ndther recommendatfon wm acted upcm. In 1908,
aaothar committee of the National Acad^y recommended a per-
maneint board to adv^ on the work of the sea«itifie bureaus, the b^nd
to 'Consist nf the heads^ of the v«iou^ bmmus, four del^ates from

'1^ of not connected

93

with the Government service/^ No action was taken as a result of
this report. A temporary Science Advisory Board was appointed by
I¥esident Roosevelt in 1933 and asked to consider specific problems of
the organization of various scientific bureaus and to recommend a
program for more active support of research by the Federal Govern-
ment. In the 2 years of its activities, the board made many valuable
recommendations and brought about useful improvements in the
Government service. The board submitted its first report in 1934
and its final report late in 1935. In this final report the board strongly
r<wx)mmended the creation of a permanent science advisory board for
the scientific services of tbe Federal Government. Several years later
the National Resources Committee published a study of Federal aids
to r^arch and of the place of scientific work in the Government.^
Findings of these two committees have been consulted freely in the
preparation of the present chapter. Suggestions from research
wooers and research directors long connected with government
bureaus afford a basis for recommendations supplemental to those
proposed by the earlier committees.

A. SUGGESTED REFORMS

The special problems of the conduct of research by the Government
are made more diflBcult than is necessary by the application to research
activities and to research personnel of relations desimed primarily
to govern custodial, regulatory, or other functions of Government.
Many of the^e regulations and restrictions seriously hamper succ^ful
prosecution of r^arch work by Government agencies. If research
IS to he conducted by Government, ite distinctive character should be
recognized, and it should be freed from as many as possible of these
hampering restrictions. Fiscal and budgetary procedures should be
modified to fit the particular needs of research work rather than
attempting to adapt research procedures to inflexible regulations
applicable to other items of Government expense. Civil Service
r^ulations should be modified to permit the most advantageous
procedui^ for recniiting and classifying scientific personnel. Re-
search by Government bureaus should be coordinated with research
in other public and private scientific institutions.

t . Fiscal and Bu<lget<xy Procedures

The scientifiic work of Go VOTmeoat bureaus could be assisted greatly
by simplifying procedure in order to permit more effective use of the
fimds appropriated for research. The principal modifications sug-
g^ted here are aimed at granting wider latitude and greater flexi-
bility for planning and executing sustained research programs. The
nec^sary change in procedure can probably b^t be determined by a
special committee composed of governmental and nongovernmental
sdaitists and representative of the budgetary or appropriating
authorities.

a. Appropriations for Long-Term Programs

Current budgetary procedure of Government provide funds on an
annual Imris, yet only a small percentage of the research conducted by

* 1. RdmtU% of the Fedeml Goomimmt te JRamrcb, cM.

m

Government agencies can be planned adequately or appraised satis-
factorily on a 1-year basis. Kesearch programs should somehow be
assured in terms of their long-run objectives. If approved^ funds
should be guaranteed over the period of years necessary to permit
continuity of effort and attainment of th^e ultimate objectives.
Appropriations should be in lump sums for broad programs rather than
in specific sums for detailed projects. Kequiring detailed justifications
of an annual budget tends to stultify research by ignoring its intrinsic
uncertainty. Appropriations within the assur^ sum might then be
made avaflable as at pr^ent in the annual budget. This plan has
attained limited acceptance in certain departments of the Gnvem-
ment, but the procedure should be made uniform throughout scientific
bur«irus. It gives needed flexibility to research pix^ams and permits
modification to meet unexpected developments which almost inevitably
arise.

b. Cooperative Support of Research by Public and Private

Agencies

The^ degree of cooperation by public and private ^enci^ in the
financial support of research has never been uniform in all departeents
of the Government. It should be made a relatively simple matter for
any scientific bureau of the Government to accept funds from State
or local governments, from nonprofit research institutions, or from
private industry, for cooperative scientific investigations that are in
the public interest.

It is particularly important that Eederal research agenci^ should
be able to cooperate freely with State and municipal governments.
Many problems of predominantly local concern can be studied most
advantageously by State agencies, such as agricultural experiment
stations, health departments, and mineral resource bureaus. To
the extent that the results of these studies are of more than local
interest, they should receive financial support through the Federal
bureaus that are particularly interested. The Federal Government
should, perhaps, make^ a special effort to stimulate development of
research organizations in backward stat^.

c. Simplification of Fiscal Regulations

Government regulations regarding the purchase of supples and
equipment, while intended to assure economy and fair d waling to all,
often hamper research programs. The calling for bids and the insist-
ence on purchase of the lowest-priced material is no doubt fully justi-
fied for the great bulk of Government supply. Neverthelm, the
required procedures do not always 3rield scientific equipment of the
best quality, and the nominal savi^ is usu^y far outweighed by
intangible losses in delay and frustration of the research staff. Liheral-
ization of the rules for purchase of scientific equipment is, therefore,
recommended.

2. Operation of the Civil Service

The most important sin^e factor in scientific and tedhnical work
is the qualty of personnS employed. Scientific and prof^ior^
personnel in Government service are now subject to approximately
the same system of recruitment, promotion, and supervision as those

in ttie clmcal, fiscal, and custodial positions. Separate and distinct
procedure for recruiting and classifying scientific personnel are war-
ranted by tJie exacting tecimical requirements in these services. No
one change from current practice would do more to improve the
quality of research conducted by the government than the establish-
naont of a separate branch of the Civil Service for scientific and tech-
mcal positions.

The Civil Service was instituted to replace the demoralizing " Spoils
%sten” by an orderly merit system of recruiting eflicient personnel
for Government service. It has been largely succ^sful in diminating
the spoilsmen”; and any modifications designed to improve present
methods of recruiting and protecting personnel must not imperil the
def^isa now afforded against politico influence and favoritism in
making appointments. The keystone of the merit system is compe-
tition open to all qualified applicants for a position; but the Civil
Service has been severdy criticized because of the slow and cumber-
some machinery nectary to insure this competition. The general
suggestions offered here are designed to meet the more serious of
these criticisms without undermining the essentials of the merit
system. The precise form of changes needed in present Civil Service
procedures deserves study by a special committee of governmental,
university, and industrial scientists and representative of the Civil
Service Commission.

a. Entrance Requirements for Scientific Service

The standards for entrance into scientific and professional positions
in the Government should be approximatdy those maintaiDed for
comparable j^ts in universitie and industrie. Civil Service posi-
tions are subjected to continuous political preeure to rdax entrance
requirements ; and recently the educational requirementB for a number
of sci^iiific classifications have been removed. Tliis opens the way
to posdHe appointments by personal favoritism and political prefer-
ence. Actictt ^ould be taken immediately to re-establish the require-
ment of a university or college de^ee for entrance into all scientific
and professional services, inceptions in especially meritorious cases
^ould be granted only upon recommendation of qualified scientists.

In many typm of Government employment, standards are not
lowered bv granting militaiy preference to candidate who have
served in tiae armed forces, although, strictly speaking, such preference
is a departure from the merit ^stem. In scientmc and technical
services, however, individuals unable to qualify without special
preference are not reafiy benefit by appointment to positions for
which they are unqualified; and when smm appointments are made,
the work inevitably suffers. Any lowering of entrance requirements,
whether for dviliaas or veterans, is distinctly harmful to the scientific
service of Government.

b. Recruitmcnf of Scientific Personnel

The method of recruiting for goveammental service pr^upposes a
supply of able applicants for every position to be filled. However, in
the years immediately preceding the pr^ent war there was a short^e
of able youi^ emoitists. This shortage is likely to be even more acute
after the war, because of the interruption of training programs.

96

Govermaeiit scientific bureaus are under a severe handicap in com-
peting with industrial laboratories which employ college seniors by
the^ use of the personal interview followed by prompt appointment.
This handicap should be offset as much as possible without jeopardiz-
ing the fundamental objectives of Civil Service. It should be i)er-
missible for representatives of Government agenci^ to interview
students and to persuade the more able ones to apply for employment.
The months of delay between application, examination, and notifica-
tion of appointment should, if po^ible, be reduced to a few days.
College seniom could be given appointments effective on the day of
their graduation. The necessary safegu^ds could be maintained by
a lor^er period of probationary employment and by the requirement
of suitable examinations before promotion to higher grades. Govern-
ment bureaus could further improve their chances of successful re-
cruitment from the colleges by making wider use of temporary student
appointments during summer vacations.

c. Salary Scale

The opportunity for full-time scientific work, freedom to publish
r^ults, and the satisfaction of serving the national intermt attamct
many able scientists to the Government service. But salary scal^
must be broadly commensurate with those of private institutions if
these scientists are expected to remain in Government service. En-
trance s^aries in Government scientific positions are usually gJightiy
above tins competitive level. However, promotion is slow in CJovem-
ment service, and the i%her positions carry salaries much lower ^an
those off^ed in mdustry. The pr^ent S3rstem of eiE&ciency rating
and promotion procedures is deseed to assure fair and uniform treat-
ment for aE governmental positions. But this ^tem is so elaborate
that it requires handling by many persons of nontechnical training.
Furthermore, in most branches of Government service, the higher
salaries are almost solely for supervisory positions. As a result, the
senior professional positioii, with a salary range of $4,600 to $5,400 a
year, is the hi^^t ordinarily attained fay Government sdentists in
nonadministrative positions. Civil Service r^ulations dbould be
modified to permit exceptionally qualifi^ scientisis to rmeh salaries
of $9,000 or more a year even though they may not have important
administrative responsibilities.

It is sometimes said that one of the most serious limitations of
scientific work by the Government is the mability to pay salmes
large enoi:^ to get outstanding directors for r^eardx oiganimtions,
Almough no l^m restrictions, except the necessity for congr^^mal
approvm, prevent the employment of a director of a bureau

at whatever salary is deemed nec^sary, practical «>imderatioBS — •
such as comparison with the salaries of I>e|Mi1anmt Secretaries and
members of Congress^— inevitably impose limitations. In actual
practice, few r^earch directors have receivad more than $9,000 a
year. , — ' ' ,

Under the stress of war needs, when expert talent was uigeDtiy
required, the departments of Government, pM^cularly the so-called
*‘war .saw^eded to smm extent in breaking down the

tradition of low Goverament sdbtries. Many tectmical positions and
salaries- were, in. -^ec^ -ifMKadoi; and ^is contributed significantly
to- .the flow of wvenmi^il mrflm during the war mier-

97

geacy. A more general and permanent up-grading of positions and
salari^ in the scientific services of Government, accompanied by a
careful selection of new talent, would be a major contribution to im-
provement of the quality of research conducted by the Government.

d. Security of Tenure

The security of tenure in Civil Service is partial compensation for
the lower salari^ in many typ^ of governmental employment, spe-
cially during periods of depression. But if scientific and professional
personnel are to be classified separately from other Government
employee, and if they are to receive salaries approximating those of
their coHeagu^ m universities and in industry, care must be taken
that this securitjy of tenure does not become a shelter for incom-
petence and mediocrity.

Many of the more able and energetic scientists iu Government service
are offered higher salaries elsewhere. Inevitably, a number of these
offers are accepted, with the result that the less qualified^ employees
tend to constitute a larger proportion of those who remain. Unless
a r^earch bureau can replace such losses with new employees of equal
ability, it is forced to operate with only the residue of its scientific
staff after continuous raids. An additional handicap is the difficulty,
xmder Civil Service regulations, of demoting or dismissing incom-
petent, mediocre, or poorly adjusted individuals.

Higher standards for entrance into scientific positions, longer and

I more closely supervised periods of probation, examinations for pro-
motions in the lowest grades, with the alternative of separation from
the service, and higher salaries for the abler scientists are some of the
methods by which the quality of scientific work of the Government can
be improved.

3. Coordination of Governmental Research

The extensive development of the sciences in recent years, and the
increasing complexity of governmental research, make it more difficult
each year to coordinate the scientific work conducted by the Govern-
ment and to iat^rate governmental r^earch with that of universities,
endowed institutions, and industrial organizations. Parallel investi-
gations of certain important research problems are to be encouraged
rather than avoided, and duplication should not necessarily be the
bugbear in science that it is in other types of governmental activity.
Neverthelm, it become increasingly important that the research
per^nnel of various governmental bureaus keep in close touch with
one another and with current technical devdopments and public
needs.

a. Coordination of Research Within the Govemmenf

A specific need is for an iuterbureau committee or council of repre-
sentatives of the principal scientific bureaus. Such a committee
mi^t be set up mder the Bureau of the Budget, or other appropriate
auspices, to advise on interrelationships of research programs of the
different agenci^,^ and to compare the effectiven^ of Afferent pro-
i»d[iires for administering governmental research. Eecommendations
firoBi such a committee on policies of budget procedure or of dassifica-

tion of scientific personnel should cany more weight than the recom-
mendation of a single bureau.

The practice of utilizing scientific employees of one bureau as con-
sultants for other bureaus is difficult under existing regulations. But
if this practice were generally adopted, it would further coordination
of research programs by diieminating more widely a kaowledge of
the related problems under investigation by various agencies and of the
different methods by which these problems are being attacked.

b. Coordination of Governmental Researcli witfi Outside

Organizations

There is a widespread impression that a research project, once
started by a Government bureau, may continue long after it has served
its original purpose. Research projects need continuous reappraisal
in the light of scientific advance and technological developments.
Orderly revision of research programs should be the normal and ex-
pected result of scientific progress. The danger that a research
bureau may fail to revise its programs or its methods when they
become obsolete is minimized most surely by encoura^ng members
of the scientific staff to maintain close contact with their professional
colleaOTes elsewhere. Government employees engaged in research
should be encouraged to participate in the activities and publications
of national scientific societi^. This means, among other things,
more liberal funds for travel to scientific meetings. Furthermore, it
should be legally possible for any Government bureau to keep in close
touch with modem ideas within its field of science by assigning em-
ployees on full pay for graduate work at universities or for research
projects to be conducted at endowed or industrial iostitutions or at
official research organizations in this or other countri^. Scientists
from universities, research institutions, State agencies and industrial
organizations should be invited to accept appointments for short-term
projects in Government bureaus. Facilities should likewise be ex-
tended to visiting scientists from foreign countries.

c. Clarification of Patent Policy for Government Employees I

The present policy of granting patents to the employees of some |
Government bureaus for inventions in the field of the bureaus’ official
duties does not instill public confidence in Government employees nor
encourage indust^ to share new information with Government
agencies. Attention should be given to the recommendations of the
National Patent Planning Commi^ion that all inventions made
within the specifically designated duties of Government employees
be assigned to the Government and that doubtful cases be decided by
a central board on Government patents.^

4. Advisory Committees to the Separate Bureaus and a
Permanent Science Advisory Board

Many of the changes here recommended to assure proper coordi-
nation of governmenSl research and raise the level of its performance
depend in considerable measure upon the existence of advisory com-
mittees to the several scientific bureaus. The excellentservice rendered

1 See SecowcJ Report of the Nat^md PMmt

by the several advisory committees already in existence has demon-
strated the value of these bodies. Their use, however, is not universal,
and at present only the more proOTessive bureaus actively seek outside
advice. It is therefore ui^ed that advisory committees, composed
of scientists from outside the Government service, be established for
eadi of the bureaus or agencies in which extensive research is being
conducted.

There has been ample experience, also, to demonstrate the need for
a permanent Science Advisory Board, similar to the body which served
so succe^fully on a temporary basis from 1933 to 1935. Such a
cmtral board could correlate the activities of the specialized advisory
committees, and would probably be the proper body to recommend
the personnel of the various committees. It would be in a position
to advise Coiigress and the Bureau of the Budget on the quality and
importance of research being conducted by the bureaus. By beii^
able to rely upon the disinterested advice of such a body, Congress
might be willing to appropriate sums for long-term programs of Basic
research whose importance it is difficult or impossible for nontechnical
persons to evaluate properly. Besides consulting with the bureau
chiefs on their individuM or collective problems, the board would
find it helpful to meet at stated intervals with the interbureau com-
mittee proposed earlier in this chapter.

We add our recommendation to those of earlier committees and
strongly urge the creation of a permaaent Science Advisory Board,
empowered to assume over-all resj^nsibility for advising the various
bimches of the Government in scientific matters. We suggest that
this board cooperate closely with the National Research Foundation.

Chapter V

AIDS TO INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH AND
TECHNOLOGY

Industrial researcli in America has enjoyed a rapid and extensive
growth. There are also widespread indications that industry is
planning to undertake applied research on a greatly expanded scale
in the postw^ period — -mi enoouraging and wholesome prospect.
At the same time it is evident that research in American industry is
concen^ted to a considerable extent in a relatively small number of
industrial unite and in a few particularly progr^ive Industrie.
Thirteen companies employed nearly one-third of aU industrial re-
search personnel in the year 1938. In the rubber industry, one-
quarter of the companies employed 9€ i^rcent of the research workers,
while in petroleum and industrial chemicals the respective percentagi^
were 85 and 88. This is not to surest that there should be a conrider-
able degree of uniformity among me unite of an industry or betw^n
industries as to the percentage of research effort in each. But the
imjplications of the increasing (X)Bcentration of industrial research in
this country d^rve special study.

One important fact is dear — the proce^ of transition from pure
research to its practical applications does not work equally effectively
in ah industries. For example, the petroleum indimtry has for years
supported far more research than has the coal industry. New tech-
nics developments in the petroleum field have made it p^ible to
carry on an increasing amount of r^arch while the relative back-
wardness of the coS industry, where small units predominate, has re-
sulted in fewer and fewer new developments and a less and
heSthy over-aU situation.

Time did not permit an intensive and well-rounded investigatioii of
this subject. The Committee feels stron^y, however, that the Na-
tions Kesearch Foundation shoSd be charged with the r^ponsibility
of studymg the process of technologies deySopmenl in industry and
of ex|>eriinenting with methods of Sd to MustriS r^^rdh. The
folowing ST^estions are tentative and submittai with the thought
that they might be of assistance to tiie Board in meeting this important
chalenge.

A. ASSISTANCE TO TECHNICAL aiNICS FOR SMALL

ENTERPRISE

' It 'IS' the bdfi^' of tiie CopmSMeO' that the most dieetive r^earch
wellS’ fipom beiO'W. Our 'obieclive, therefore, dhould be to devdop as
many individuS oen^tes 'of research initiative m industry as is pos-

sible- The seeds of industrial research that are planted now in snaall,
vigorous industrial enterprises may yield tremendous retmns in the
future. There is considerable difficulty, however, id getting research
started in enterprises which have not been research-minded in the past.

To meet this need a number of special research clinics have been
established in different regions, e. g., the New England Industrial
Research Foundation. These clinics make their services available
to the small business concerns of the region in which they serve. It
is difficult to place this type of enterprise entirely on a self-supporting
basis especially where its important promotional activities are con-
cerned. The Committee believes that this movement should be
encouraged. It therefore recommends that the National Research
Foundation be empowered to make sustaining grants to cover part
of the administrative costs involved in such organizations, provided
they are run on a nonprofit basis.

The activities of such services should include stimulation of business
interest in research and technical developments, aid to small businesses
in interpreting the trends in technical developments, consultation
with individual concerns to aid them in a diagnosis of their technical
problems, and maintenance of a directory service to put small busi-
nessmen in touch with competent individuals and proper sources of
information necessary for further work.

Universities, engineering schools and nonprofit industrial research
institutes should be eligible to receive grants from the National Re-
search Foundation to perform such services. Insofar as possible,
organizations with ^ass-roots foundations standing high in com-
munity prestige ana offering a substantial background in active
research work, should be selected. The staff of such a clinic might
include a limited number of full- or part-time individuals for general
promotional and advisory work; but there should also be available a
panel of experts in as many fields as possible for counsel on specific
problems.

War experience has demonstrated that such organizations must be
able to bring their information directly to the plant. It is believed
that in the proper hands such services will prove very helpful and can
be of significant value in the long run in developing vigorous new
research organizations and reducing the existing concentration of
research in a relatively small number of companies.

B. GRANTS TO NONPROFIT INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTES
FOR FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH

In rec^t years an increasing number of industries in which re-
search has lagged in the past have attempted to meet the problem
by establishing special research institutes to serve the industry.
Such institutes are usually supported by annual grants from individual
business concerns. One of the difficulties that these institutes have
faced is the pressure for short-range accomplishments. In consequence,
r^earch undertaken has not bem sufficiently basic to achieve the
most s^nificant results. It is suggested, therefore, that where non-
profit industrial institutes are deemed capable of undertaldng im-
portant long-range research they should be eligible for gyants for
fundamental research from the National Research Foundation.

C. ENCOURAGEMENT FOR NEW SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISES

In addition to these recommendations, some members of the
Committee feel that special steps should be taken to encourage the
launching of small scientific enterprises. Other members, while
sympathetic to these objective, do not believe that any practical
method could be devised for handling such problems through a
government agency.

Those members of the Committee who favor taking some positive
action to hdp launch new scientific enteiyrises believe that greater
oppoitimitim should be provided to individuals who are primarily
inten^^ in new applications of recent advances in pure science
rather thaa in basic inquiry itself. This thou^t has been daboratoi
by one of the members of the Committee in the following terms:

T!iB couDtry needs new types of industrial activity. We should not be satisfied
with the cycle of displacement of one good technical product made of metal by
the same product made of plastic, and so on, in a rather unimaginative ntilimtion
of fundamental developments. What is required is the rapid invention and evo-
lution of the peacetime analogues of Jet-propelled vehicles, bazookas, .and the
multiplicity of secret, bold developments of the war.

New types of industrial activity could be aided if students of engineering and
science were strongly encouraged at the undergraduate stage to study unsolved
technical problems and to invent solutions for them. On graduation those young
men who wish to strike out for themselves should have the opportunity to complete
their inventions, both theoretically and practically, in an actual enterprise. In
large industrial organizations which provide the principal outlet for such men
there is a long path of duty which the young scientist must pursue before he <mn
become very effective in original contribution. Furthermore, most large indus-
trial concerns are limited by policy to special directions of expansion within the
well-established field of activity of the company. On the other hand, most small
companies do not have the resources or the faciliti^ to support ** scientific pros-
p^ing.” Thus the young man leaving the university with a propwal for a new
kind of industrial activity is frequently not able to find a matrix for the develop-
ment of his ideas in any established industrial organization.

Neither is it always satisfactory that such a potential scientific entrepreneur
remain in the university for graduate work. The Ph. D. degree in the American
university may not best fit a man for such a career; it makes him a good scholar
but may dampen his early leanings in the direction of the commercial development
of his ideas. *

The Comtoittee was not able to agree on a solution to this problem.
The matter was regarded as of siimcient importance, however, to
justify careful investigation by the National Research Foundation in
the hope that it might be able to devise special methods and techniques
of encouraging young scientists in the development of their inventiojas
and in the launching of new scientific enterprise.

D. STRENGTHENING THE PATENT SYSTEM

Patents are the life of research. No study of the aids to r^eardb
or the incentives to research would he complete without an inquiry
into the maioner in which the patent laws and the patent system of tlm
country might be strengthen^. The Committ^ has given its atten-
tion to this important problem and has advised Dr, Bush informafiy
of its views on this subject.

No detailed recommendations on the patent aspects of research are
herein contained since Dr. Bush is independenllj making a study of
this problem looking to a separate report to the Prudent. This
Committee wish^ to emphaske, however, the Teiy vital importance
of a strong patent system to the development of new and active anall
enterprises and the stiinulation of h^thy scioatific research.

^9445 — 45 s

103

Chapter VI

TAXATION AND RESEARCH

Federal corporate income taxes have an important bearing on the
amount of scientific research and new-prodnct development under-
taken by private enterprises. An examination of the present treat-
ment of research and development expenditures for tax purpose is
tberefore an important aspect of a study designed to determine, as
requited by President Roosevelt, what the government can do to aid
iwearch activities conducted by private organizations.

A. PRESENT TAX TREATMENT OF RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT EXPENDITURES

The deduction of research and dmeh'pimnt expenditures as mrrerd
charges against net income is generally permittm by the Bureau of
Internal Revenue. In broad terms the policy of the Bureau appears
to ^ as follows: Firms that spend approximately the same amoimt
on r^earch and development work year after year and consistently
daim these e:^enditures as deductions from current income seldom
have substantial amounts of their daims disallowed. On the other
han<L where the amounts spent on r^earch and development fluctuate
widely from year to year and where the taxpayer does not follow a
coEsistent accounting practice in handimg researdi and devdopment
expaaditur^, the Bureau tends to ^estion more dosely the taxpayer’s
timtment of such expenditures. This policy may sometime result in
a less favorable treatment for new and small companies than for lai^e,
establidied (X)inpanies.

1 , UiKertaifity in Minds of Taxpayers

Many taxpayers believe that in recent years the Bureau of Internal
Revenue has b^n adopting an increasingly critical attitude toward the
deductibility of research and devdopment cjosts. This impression, so
far as the Ccmmittee can determine, is not the result of any deliberate
change in the policy oi the Bureau, Rather, it has probably arisen
from the justifiable tendency of the Bureau to review more dosely aU
items affecting taxable income in jmcB of hi^ tax rates.

The uncertainty on the part of taxpayers is hd^teued by the fact
that the tax law and Treasury r^ulations do not rlmriy specify the
proper treatment of research and devdopment costs. There are
rdativdy few court cases on the problem; moreover, existing cases
to support the view that many research and devdopment costs
»i cmpilal expenditure. Consequently, if the Bureau Aould aban-
don its pre^nt liberal policy and attempt to enforce the capitdization
of m&mA and devdopment costs wherever possible, its action might
wdl be BiEl$in'©d, in 'Court.

If research and devdopment costs were required to be capitalized,

they could pr^ximablj be amortized over their useful life. The
task of determining the proper basis of amortization would, however,
be extremely difficult and frequently impossible of solution. If the
tax law were very narrowly interpreted, it is conceivable, although
not likely, that the difficulty of determining a proper basis for amor-
tizing capitalized r^earch costs might m&e it impossible for sudi
coste ever to be deducted for tax purposes. The Treasury regulations
now permit intangible assets to be amortized only when the usrful
Me of the asset can be determined with reasonable accuracy.

Smoe a delay of several years ordinarily occurs before a tax return
is .finally audited and clewed by the Bureau of Internal Revenue, the
uncertain status of the deductibility of r^earch and development
expenditure can involve very laige sums of money. SmaH firms
making heavy research expenditure, in particular, are retricted by
this uncertainty in their commitments for fixed invetments.

2. Proper Accounting Treatment of Research and Development

Costs

No simple, universally applicable principles can be laid down as to
the proper accounting treatment of research and development ccBts,
Some research costs are clearly current expense: they either turn out
to be worthless or merely enable the taxpayer to keep abreast of his
com|)etitor. Other r^arch expenditures may improve the long-nih
position of an enterprise, but the amount of the e^enditur^ properiy
allocable to a given product, and the proper basis of amortimtion of
these expenditure, may be almost impoeible to determine. In a
few case such as, perhaps, the development of a new model of an
airplme, the capital nature of the expenditure may be fairly obvious,
and it may be possible to determine a reasonably satisfactory basis
for amortizing the expenditure. Even in such instance, however, it
is frequently impossible to determine in the year that a given expendi-
ture is made whether a valuable capital asset will be developed.

3. The Public Interest

This report assume that the stimulation of research and develop-
ment work, especially by small enterprises, is in the national interest.
It therefore follows that the present tax imcertainties of r^arch
expenditures should be removed. The case for taking this action is
particularly strong since, for the most part, aU that is needed is a
specific legal sanction of the present Treasury practice.

B. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LEGISLATIVE ACTION

Becommeridation (1). — ^Deductibility of expenditor^ on r^earch
and development (other than expenditures for the acquisition of
tangible capital assets). The Internal Revenue Code should be
amended to give the taxpayer in every taxaMe year an option:

(а) To deduct currentiy all expenditures on sdentific r^earch and
the devdopment of new productss and proc^s^, ollw than expmdi-
tmes for the acquisition of tangiMe capital aseete; or

(б) To capitalize such expmditines as defeirred chpges and amor-

tize them according to a specified ifian that in Ihe ju^nent of the
ta^ayer is de^ed rBaamable; or . •

(c) To deduct currentiy su<h part of tiiese expenditure as in the

105

judpneiife of the taxpayer is deemed to be a current cost and to
capitalize the remainder as deferred charges and amortize them
according to a specified plan that in the judgment of the taxpayer is
deemed re^onable.

This recommendation appears to be clearly desirable. Its primary
effect would be to give clear legal sanction to present practice and
hence to remove the uncertainty of the present law. A secondary
efl«3t would be to give the taxpayer more flexibility in the deduction
of research and devdopment costs. Very little change in current
practice, however, would ordinarily result from the increased degree
of flexibility. Most taxpayers would continue their present policy of
toeating research and development costs as an annual expense. Since
no simple rule, properly applicable to all cases can be devised, it
seems wise to give the taxpayer considerable freedom of action.

Recommendaticm (2). — Amortization of expenditures for the acquisi-
tion of tangible capital assets used for scientific research and the
development of new products and processes. The Internal Hevenue
Code ^ouid be amended to give the taxpayer an option:

(a) To amortize the cost of tangible capital assets used for scien-
tific r^earch and the development of new products and process^ in
equal amounts over a period of five years; or

(b) To depreciate such assets at the same rates as ordinarily allowed
on such assets.

Recommendation (2) provides for an optional accelerated amortiza-
tion of tangible capital assets acquired and used for the development of
new products and proc^sm. As such, it is consistent in purpose with
recommendations made by the Roosevelt Administration for tiie ac-
cderated amortization of all depreciable assets. The present recom-
mendation would not, however, raise many of the difficulties of iJie
general propel, since it would apply to only a very small percentage
of fixed assets and hence would not significantly affect the revenue
yield of the tax structure.

In general, expenditure for the acquisition of tangible capital
assets constitute a minor fraction of all outlays on research and devel-
opment. Moreover, in some instance at least, research equipment
is already depreciated at a rapid rate. Nevertheless, this recom-
MOTidation has been supported by most of the businessmen whose
opinion on the proposal has been obtained.

C BROAD TAX CONSIDERATIONS

The precediug sections of this report have been confined to issues
related directly to the treatment of research and development ex*
penditures. TVo broader tax revMons, dearly desirable on other
grounds than for the sole purpose of promoting research and develop-
ment work, would be veiy hdpM in stimuialing increased research
and development expenditures. Consequently, the Committee con-
curs in the recommendations that have already been made by other
groups:

(1) That immediate legislative action be taken to make the tax
reftinds from the carry-back provisions and from the postwar refund
4t Ifl percent of excess profits taxe® more promptiy available to tax-
payers during the transition period; and

|2) toe net operating loss carry-over provided by the present
tax law be increased from 2 years, to, at least, 5 or 6 yemrs.

Chapter VII

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIITC COOPERATION

Perhaps more than any other national activity^^ scientific rmearch
and development depend upon dose relationships with other coimtries.
Scientific knowledge is not limited by geographical or racial boundaries,
and it is almost impossible to thiiik of any branch of science which
has progressed very far without amalgamating discoveri^ made in
several different nations. In the past, most of this interchar^e has
gone on formally and directly between the members of the scientific
communities concerned, without r^ard to political considerations.
Certain obvious barriers such as that of language have hamper^ free
communication, but, on the whole, relations between scientists have
probably been doser than between the representatives of any other
s^ment of society.

The ^owth of science in the last few decades and its increasingly
dose mationdiip to other national invests have demonstrated me
need for more official methods of carrying on international sdentific
activity.

A. SUPPORT AND SPONSORSHIP OF INTERNATIONAL
COOPERATIVE SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISES

That this country has never provided any method of participating
officially in international scientific enterprises has frequently been an
embarrassment to various scientific groups. If the present tendency,
in other countries, of dosdy integrating science with Government
continues, the need will exist for some official body to carry on int^-
national scientific activities. (A good example of such an activity
was the so-caUed ‘Tntemationd Polar Year’^ in which several coun-
tries, interested in the compilation of scientific data of the Arctic
r^ons, pooled information and technique. This cooperation gave
added value to the r^ults of the study by providing uniform methods
of observation and presentation of the data collect^.) The Govern-
ment could not only provide some modest financing for such inter-
national cooperative projects, but it could also facilitate them by
arranging for means of travd, visas, and so forth.

It is &erefore recommended that the National Kesearch Founda-
tion be charged writib the responsibility of participating m mcii inter-
national cooperative scientific enterprise as it deems deirable.

1; International Scientific Confesses

The Foundation should also participate in arrangements for inter-
national srientifio conferences whereby scientific workers in different

107

countri^ mav be brought together to exchange ideas. These were
held more or less regularly before the war and were found to be stimu-
latang and useM forms of assistance to the advancement of science.
As far as the United States was concerned, however, its representatives
were frequently hampered, especially when they were acting as hosts
for mpi&mcm hdid in this country, by the lack of Government
fimnciai aid and by difficulties in arranging for officid courtesi^
rdiating to the travd of outstanding men from abroad and for other
marks of official recognition which are commonly available in Europe,
An organization such as the National Research Foundation could be
very hdpful in making these arrangements.

2. International Fellowships

If the Foundation is set up as suggested, it would be empowered to
grant scholarships and fellowships to qualified scientists. It is recom-
mended ffiat attention be given to awarding some of these fellowships
to Americans who wish foreign travel and study, and to scientists
from abroad to undertake advanced research in this country. Private
foundations have found this to be an excellent way not only of aiding
scientific progress but of promoting internationd understanding as
weE. Holders of such fellowships are likely to be disinterested repre-
sentatives of their coimtries and well equipped to observe the national
life of the country they visit. Such a program should be undertaken
with particular care to avoid specialized p^tical or personal interests,
and it would be well to draw freely upon the experience of the National
Rese^ch Coimdl or the private foundations which have been successful
in this field in the past.

3. Scientific Attaches

^ The Committee would like to surest, as an experiment, that scien-
tific attaches be appointed to serve in certain selected United States
embassies. They should be men of high professional scientific attain-
ments whose tenure of the post would be temporary — perhaps 1 or 2
years — md whose principri duties would be concerned with facilitating
the various aspect of scientific cooperation discussed above. It is
also expected that m formal ways they would imfirove their knowl-
edge of science as it is pursued abroad and would in turn contribute
something from their experience in this country. Such a post would
appear to be most important in countries such as Russia where a
great deal, if not all, of the scientific activity is controlled or directed
by the government and where other channels of scientific communica-
faon have been greatly restricted for several years;

Chapter VIII

A NATIONAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION

As a means to implement the recommendations of this report, it is
proposed that the Congress should create a National R^eardb. Foun-
dation. The function of this new Federal agency should be to assist
and encourage research in the public interest by disbtusement of funds
allocated by the Congress for that purpose. Its board of trustee
should be eminent men who are cognizant of the needs of science, and
experienced in administration. The members of this board ^ould be
appointed by the President of the United States from a panel nomi-
nated by the National Academy of Sciences.

It is proposed that the Foundation be mven an original noneaming
capitalization of $5(K),000,000, to be called and expended, with the
approval of Congre^, over not less than 10 years. As has been dish
cussed earlier in this report, scientists and locators emphasize the
cardinal importance of creating a board which (1) can budget its
expenditures over a considerable period of time; (2) not be subject
to review in detail by the l^Mature, and (3) wil be able to withsteid
political pressures. The British University Grants Committee, whidh
has been operating successfully for many years with funds supplied
by Parliament and whose postwar role is undeigoing great expansion,
serves as one of many examples corroborating the desirability of the
above features. It ^ould be clearly understood, however, that the
present committee does not recommend any instrumentality which
would not be accountable to the President, the Congress, and the
public for its operations.

A. ORGANIZATION

The board of trustees should comprise about 15 members, each
serving on a part-time basis, with remuneration at the rate of $50
per diem when on official duty, plus necessary travel and subsistence
expenses. The term of office should normally be for 5 years and no
retiring member should be eligible for reappointment until after a
lapse of 2 additional years. In order to insure continuity, there
should be a staggering of the terms of office of the various members.
It is suggested, therefore, that at the outset the &st appointments
be for varying periods of time. Because the progress of science
depmds in great measure on the vigorous and progressive abilities of
younger men, the Committee su^ests that in making appointments
to the board and m its policies on retirements an effort be made to
keep the age distribution such as to assure djmamic leadership.

The board should have the power to appoint an executive director
of recognized ability who would be a full-time officer, ri^iving a
salary commensurate with the, dignity and importance of hk position
and responsibiliti^. The details of the internal affmhmtrative or-

1(»

ganization of the Foundation cannot profitably be discussed here.
The executive staff of the Foundation and its board of directors would
no doubt wish to modify and change administrative procedmes in
the light of experience acquired. Presumably, the executive director
would have at his command a staff of experts, each responsible for a
major division of science: the pWsical sciences, the biological sciences,
engineering, agriculture, etc. These experts would be full-time pro-
fessional employees of high salary and status, charged with the task
of keeping in touch with research all over the country. By lighten-
ing the burden of administration for the board, they would permit it
to concentrate on important policy decisions. Not the least of the
problems which would have to be faced by the new o:^anization
woudd be that of maintaining close contact with r^earch in all parts
of the country.

B. POWERS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

The broad, general object of the Foundation is to promote the
general welfare through support to science. However, more concrete

g>wers, responsibilities, and limitations must, in the judgment of this
ommittee, be placed upon the scientffic Foundation when it is estab-
lished. Under the guise of ^^promoting the general welfare, the
agency should not be able to set itself up in business to produce in
wmpetition with existing industry. Its prima:^ purpose is to provide
encour^ement, and, where necessary, financial aid, without at the
same time introducmg centralized control of research. The Founda-
tion should be empowered to receive gifts or bequests for the support
of scientific research from outside source as well as from the Govern-
ment.

In carrying out its objective, the Foundation should take all
necessary or proper steps:

(a) To study and keep itself currently informed on the present state
of science in the United States and to seek ways of applying its
r^urces to the discovery of useful knowledge.

(b) To initiate, encourage, sponsor and mance scientific research
and development with emphasis on resegurch aimed at (1) increasing
the general fund of basic samtific knowledge and thus creating new
industri^ and increa^d (2) promoting the conservation

and better utilization of nature resources, and improving the
h^th of the Nation. The Foundation should utilize to the greatest
extent feasible the existiog facflities in the Federal Government, State
governments, educational institutions, public and private foundations,
laboratori^, and research institutes. No contract or grant-in-aid
made in furtherance of this provision should introduce control by the
Foundation over the mtemm policies or operations of the contractor
or ^antee.

(c) To estoblMi or provide new or additional scientific and technical
rmearch facilities in geogmpMcal areas or specialized fiidds of study
or endeavor where none exist or where existing facilities are deemed by
tile Foundation to be inadequate: Promdm, That the Foundation
should not iteelf undertake directly to operate such facilities.

(d) To provide for and assure the most comprehensive collection and
disseminatipB of scientific and technical knot^edge and mformation
by aids to libraries, bibliographic services, tran^tmg activities, etc.

(e) To seek out latent scientific talent, and to foster and support

ffd:

scientific and tecimical education and training tkrougli grants to in-
dividuals, educational institutions, public and private foundations,
laboratories and research, institutes, and through scholarships, fellow-
ships and prizes.

(f) To assist scientists, inventors, and research workers by affording
them opportunities to engage in research and developmental activities.

(g) To act in cooperation with the National Academy of Sciences in
advising the President, the Congress, and the various departments,
independent mtabMshments, and agenda of the Government on
scientific matters.

(h) To make ite facilities, pjersonnel and resources fuHy available to
the IJnited States of America in the event of war or the declaration of
a national emergency by the President or the Congress.

(t) To cooperate with the Army, Navy, and civilian military
research organizations for the rapid interchange of information on
basic scientific problems of xise in national defense. It should co-
ordinate its activities wherever possible with these organizations to
prevent unnecessary duplication.

(j) To assist industry and business, particularly small enterprise, in
establishing research facilities and in obtaining scientific and technical
information and guidance, in order to expedite the transition from
scientific discovery to technological application.

(k) To help maintain a contmuous and steady expansion of scien-
tific research by increasing its grmts for research in periods of
depression, as far as is consistent with sound and suitable policy.

(Z) To represent the Umted Stat^ of America in effecting better
mtemationd cooperation in scientific activities, to assist in the freer
international exchange of scientific and technical knowledge and in-
formation and scientific and technical personnel, to help sponsor and
finance international scientific congr^es or associations and co-
operative scientific research programs.

The board should also be empowered to make grants for such his-
torical and economic studies as it believes nec^saij W fulfil its
responsibiliti^ in investigating scientific r^earch and its practical
applications in industry.

Finally, it should be str^ed that mnfidence must^ be reposed in
the int^rity, character, and qualifications of the individuals compris-
ing the board of directors. No curbs, restrictions, or limitations on
their powers would provide adequate safeguards, or take the place^ of
character and ability; and the introduction of a series of hampering
limitations would lead to inflexibility and mefificient operation.

C PATENT POLICIES OF THE FOUNDATION

The Foundation should set up its own general rules for the handling
of patent policies. It is felt that in establishing th^ polici^ the
Foundation should interfere as little as possible with the practice of
the different universities and r^earch institutions. ^

It is expected that the obtaining of patents by universiti^ on work
financed by the National Research Foundation will tmmm a minor
byproduct of the fundamental r^earch^ undertaken. The patent
poncy of the universiti^ and research institution® should not be
permitted to interfere with early publication of resuJlB, Moreover,
the patent poE(^ of the recipimts of dbould be such m to

widespread pubEc i®e of worthrwhfte devetopments.

Ill

Appendix A

LIBRARY AIDS

Adequate teclmical libraries are an indispensable tool for research
workers. Every new discovery depends upon a host of former ones,
and every year brings additions to the store of knowledge which must
be mastered by the scientist. The magnitude of the task of keeping
all this knowledge available to the scholar requires that he be provided
with every possible aid and convenience. These services may be con-
sidered under three headings: (A) interlibrary cooperation, (B) ab-
stracting and translating services, and (C) bibliographic and reference
service.

At the pr^ent time none of these services can be said to be entirely
adequate and the rapid expansion of published materials naakes it very
unlikely that private resources can continue library services even on
thm?: present level. The problem is so large and require so much
S5>ecm knowledge and training that the^ Committee does not feel in a
position to make specific recommendations as to where Government
aid can best be brought to bear. It does, however, feel strongly that
a Government board such as the Nation^ Kesearch Foundation pro-
posed elsewhere in this report should give careful attention to the
problems presented below, and should devote part of its funds to their
solution. Several existing Government agencies, such as the Library
of Congress and the Army Medical Library, could, if they were sup-
plied with sufiScient resources, do much to improve existmg services
throughout the country. The following paragraphs contain a short
summ^ of the Committee's views regarding me most important ^
i^ues involved in the improvement of library services.

A. iNTERLIBRARY COOPERATION

The three largest Kbrari^ in this country, the Library of Congress,
the Harvard University library, and the New York Public Library,
have long ago given up any hope of collecting all materials necessary
for r^^ch. Considerable evidence exfets that over the past 150
years, librmes in this country have b^n doubling in size every 16
years. .This geometrical progression raises great problems requiring
that attention be given to the various teclmical proposals which have
iwn made for reducing the bulk of th^ materi^ and for simpHLping
tbe problem of storage and cataloging. Pending the widespread
adoption of really revolutionary technicM aids, it wnl Be n^jessary to
make ocmprehenrive arrangetnents for interlibrary cooperation.

There are two important problems here. One, that of securing in
this country at least one copy of all needed items. Various estimate
^ve si]®»|ed that existing library holdings represent from one-

third to OBe-half of all the books published. Id other words, Dowhere
iD this country are there copies of many millions of books, pamphlets,
magazines, etc. The second part of the problem is securing enough
copies of various titles so that they are strategically av^able to
students and scholars. For some books, perhaps, one copy would be
enou^, for others, however, there should be copies distributed accord-
ing to some <XM>p^tive plan.

The participating institutuions would then be free to reduce the
r^t of their colections to what may be caled “working Ibraries/^
Adequate data are not yet at hand for defining the limits of such work-
ing Ibrari^ in the various scientific fidds, and analyse of the sort
receafly undertaken by the Association of Kesearch Libraries are
urgently needed. Studies made by this group of the use of chemical
periodicals suggest that a reasonable working library covering over
W percent of the ordinary chemical laboratory's needs could be main-
tained by purchasiog less than half of the available periodical
literatxire,

Interiibrary croperative plans could take the form of agreem^ts
among al librari^ whereby each would attempt to be inclusive in
limited fields. This would involve union catalogues on a r^onal and
national basis and smoothly organized transportation arrangements.
The Committee recognizes that proposals such as this have been
quently under study by librarians and that there are many difficulties
to be surmounted. F^eral aid for the library system of the country
might well have as its central object the strengthening of tiae library
of Congress so that it could foster programs of cooperation. Both the
Librajy of Congress and the Army Medical library occupy leading
positions in their fields. Yet these two Govemmmt institutions stil
have to look to private sources for much of their support, specially
for projects involving experimentation with new methods. Two foim-
dations alone have contributed over half a million dollars to the
Library of Congress in the past few years.

Before leaving the subject of libraries it may be well to draw atten-
tion to an acute though temporary problem brought on by the war.
Few, if any, European scientmc pubMcations for the last 5 years have
been reaching this country in ^^uate volume. Many important
periodicals published are not represented at all and others are avail-
able in. only a few librari^ and in broken sets. The end of the war
will not bring about a solution to the problem since much of this
material was published in reduced editions because of wartime re-
strictions on paper and printing. Furthermore, much emting ma-
terial has been d^troyed by enemy action. If American librari^ ^e
not to show serious gaps in their collections of important foreign
periodical literature, it will be necessary to provide funds for repro-
ducing much of this material. The funds nec^pry for such a project
are entirely beyond private resources, and it is proposed, therefore,
that the Government undertake to fill this ne^.

B. ABSTRACTING AND TRANSLATING SERVICES

One of the most useful tools whereby the sd^tist is enabled to
keep up with the flow of publication is the coflection of attracts
puUished in several different fields. Their publication is extremely
laborious and expensive, involving, as it does, the imding, suinmariz-

113

ing, editing, and printing of all scientific articles published from
month to montln At the present time much of this labor is donated
by scientists who would rather sacrifice some of their research time
than be deprived of this useful service. The existence of these pub-
Eeations is a precarious one and financial deficits are frequently
encountered. Since the start of the w^ar, many continental publica-
tions have not been available for abstracting and a large number of
American and British papers have been withheld for security reasons.

If, as seems likely, it will not be possible to get this accumulated
supply of papers abstracted by persons working without compensa-
tion, substantial costs may be expected.

With the advent of Russia as an important contributor to science,
the problem of translating services becomes acute. Hitherto, most
American scientiste have been able to read the languages in which
most scientific work was published. Unfortunately, there is little
likelihood that many of the present generation will learn Russian in
the near future. Translation and republication of important Russian
works would, therefore, appear to be necessary and is likely to he
very expensive. A study of the problem insofar as it concerns
biology is now under way by the editors of Biological Abstracts, and
within a period of several months it should be possible to give a
reasonably accurate statement of the cost involved. Since such work
would benefit not only science generally in the United States but
would very likely promote the use of Engl^ in other countries, it
seems proper to recommend that the United States Government
consider methods by which the cost of such work could be m^t.

C. BIBLIOGRAPHIC AND REFERENCE SERVICES

The rapid accumulation of scientific publication continually in-
creases the problem of keeping up with advances even within a single
field. Every year earlier work is obscured by the mass of contem-
porary publication. Frequently discoveries have been published in
the past which were neglected because their ultimate significance
was not apparent at the time. The task of bringing these past dis-
coveries to bear on present problems is a difficult one. Searching
the indices of a hundred different periodicals for the past severm
decades is an almost insuperable task. In some fields, notably
medicine, consolidated and cumulative indiees are available; in others
the abstracting sources are an aid. For various reasons, however,
th^ mechanisms are not wholly satisfactory. For example, the
index catalogue of the Surgeon General's Library, which is the only
publication attempting to gather tc^ether all medical publication in a
single cumulative index, is up to date for only one letter of the alpha-
bet in any 1 year. Few other fidds, however, can boast of any cumu-
lative catalogue of periodical article.

.pother attempt to meet the need is made by the rrference services
maintained as a part of librmy service. In theory, these organiza-
tions supply lists of publications bearing on particular subjects. In
several fidds an adequate job may be done insofar as books or mono-
graphs are concemed, but rardy is sufficient attention given to period-
ical artides, which are far more important to the scientist. Fu^ot-
moie, these service are frequently restricted in practice to older
workers of distinguished reputation. The young man who wishes

fco be informed about past work is frequently compdled to divert
much enei^ which could be better spent in his laboratory.

It seems probable that use of cataloguing and sorting devices now
avaEable in the form of business machines and the use of microfilm
technique might go far to improve present methods of searching the
literature and making bibliographies. Other technical advances
may be expected further to simplify the problem. Adequate utiliza-
tion of technical advance, however, would mean reclassifying all
scientific literature for at least the past several decade. In the
future this problem could be met by arranging for classification of
every article prior to publication according to some prearranged
system.

Again the Committee wishes to emphasize that it is not equipped
to .make specific recommendations in regard to technical library
practice. It merely wishes to call attention to the existence of prob-
lems which, because of their magnitude and the large measure of
centralization necessary for solution, appear to be proper subjects
of federal concem.

115

Appendix B

ANALYSIS OF UNIVERSITY RESEARCH
EXPENDITURES

Part I

RESEARCH EXPENDITURES IN A LARGE SAMPLE OF
AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

To obtain factual information concerning research expenditures in
1939-40 and an estimate of postwar needs, questionnaires were sent
to the 315 coUeg^ and universities accredited by the Association of
American Universities. Keplies from 188 institutions were received,
giving an over-all cover^e of 60 percent. The coverage among the
larger institutions was higher (over 80 percent) than that among the
smaller schools. Of the 188 colleges reporting, 125 have organized
research programs; the remaining 63 have not conducted research.

Table I siunmarizes the returns from the 125 institutions supporting
research.

Table I

EXPENDITURES AND NEEDS OF UNIVERSITY RESEARCH

Natural Sciences and Engineering

Opearating expeaiditiires ^
1930-4§ Postwar prelects

Needs for post-
war capital
feeiKties >

10 larg^ iagtitetions

25 next in mm

Totals, 125 research institutions

Estimated totals, 150 research insti-
tutions ♦

$9, ^,000 !$16,342,000
7,340,000 19,948,000

21.843.000 *47,716, 000

26.213.000 57,260,000

$36, 105, OOO
49, 854, 000
108, 290, 000

129, 949, 000

1 TMis category indodes aS itecas of researcb eerpeaose coodasive ol buildings and items of maior capital
resaardb equipment.

* Ttoe figures are estimates by tbe uni¥eisilks of tiielr needs lor capital fecHti^ inAidifig items d
malor coital re^ardi equipment and gea^aal MxHatcry fiidlities, without whidi to portwar researdh
pitiects eiiTisaged could not be carried on adequately.

» <K to |aiLOCM),000 over and above lorewar eipmdteres tot wouM be required to finance these profeote
to imlvaraitie® estimate tot they will be able to raise only $7^000, 00© through * ‘normal*’ chaim^

* It was estimated that, o-f the 315 colleges and universities aoeredfted by the Association of Aniwican
Univmities, 150 Imve cffgandbed researdi pre^rams in to naturd sdenoes aid €iigmeerto Iteturmwere
reedved fitan US of these institutions. We have estimated to totals for » reseSrdi universities by add-
ing 20 p&ccmt to eadt category.

There are about 150 colleges and universiti^ in the United States
that have organist research programs in the natural sciences and
engmeering. We have estimated that research expenditure in these
institutions amounted to $26,000,000 in 1939-40. Estimates of
postwar proj^ts call for annual expenditures of $57,000,000. Al-
though this must be r^arded as a very rdu^ approximation, inter-
nal evidence from the returns, and am^iliffing statements accompany-
ing many of them, surest that if ad^uate funds and personnel ware
available the universities would be able to carry out projects of this
magnitude. Many of the universiti^, for example, have prepared
earful lists of important projects that their stajffs wish to und^ake
after the war.

P<Btwar estimates for capital facilities were aggregated. They
total $130,000,000, but most of them include facinfi^ used jointly
for teaching and research.

Some of the comments which accompanied repli^ to the question-
naires are given below:

The great discrepancy between the financial figures for 1939 and for our idteal
after the war is easily explainable — and not on the basis that we are hoiking to
get some money from the Government. There is just one waj that soientifie
research esan prosper and grow apace here, and that is for promising young men
to have the time to do it. Therefore, we are certain that if funds broame avail-
able either from outside or some gift to the college about which we know nothing
at the present time, we should like to use them for a considerable enlai]geineiit m
OUT staffs, which would mean that the men promisirg in research mi^t carry
only a half-time teaching load This we should hope in its totality would acaoimt
to the full time of two or three extra men in each department.

The estimates which we have made for the future represent somewhat larw
increases over our pre-war expenditures, but they are quite in line with the funds
which we have been expending for research in the war years.

Our estimate of postwar needs for r^earch are based upon definite informa-
tion concerning the research which our departments in the sciences feel they are
capable of undertaking and which they want very much to undertake as ao<m
as funds are available.

AlthoTigh the administration and faculty are giving greats xeoogniiion to the
needs of such research, it is apparent that flie state will hardly rise to the occasion
with adec|uate appropriations. The university is, therefore, in need of TOnaid«rable
support for its research program in the pc^twar period.

Research in Small Colleges

Quite interesting reports were received from small colleges on their
attitudes toward scientific research and their desire to en(X)urag© it.
One small but well-endowed college in the East stated that its primary
objective is a high quality of undergraduate teaching, and tiiat it
considers continued scholarly interest in rmearch ^sen&ai in ord^ to
obtain this objective. It has done so, in general, by four different
means: (1) Grants-in-aid from a special fund. (2) L^v^ of absence
to permit faculty members to work at other imlitiitioiis. (3) The
maintenance of a well-equipped machine shop and carpenter shop with
exp^ a^istance for the sole use of the sdeoce departments. (4) A
liberal purchase policy for instruments that can be used for both

117

mstniction and r^earcb. This resulted in a well-equipped electronics
laboratorj at the beginning of the war, which was put to valuable use
at once when war broke out.

The type of policy outlined is much more liberal in its encourage-
ment of research than was found in most of the smaller colleges. It
does, however, represent the aims of a considerable number of them,
and the adoption of similar policies by others certainly deserves
en<x)uragem6nt.

Nonresearch Institutions

The returns from the 63 colleges that do not have organized research
programs were mostly in the form of letters; few attempted to fill out
the questionnaires. The replies are of some interest, however, and
they suggest that the small liberal arts colleges fall into two definite
groups. Some of these schools view themselves as purely teaching
institutions and have no interest in developing research programs.
Furthermore, a number of them are strongly opposed to federal sub-
sidy. The following comment is typical:

In general it is my opinion that the Federal Government should not undertake
to establish any far-reaching program for the support of research in either public
or private colleges or universities. I do not believe such relations can be estab-
lished and permanently maintained without involving political control, which has
proved so disastrous in Germany and other totalitarian states.

On the other hand, many of the smaller colleges feel that they could
make important contributions to research, if funds were available to
them for that purpose. Of the 63 nonresearch institutions reporting,
25 made statements, of which the following are typical:

With adequate funds, we could reasonably expect a much greater devotion to
research than obtains at present, for the members of our staff have both the
interest and the training requisite for fruitful work.

Personally, I believe that if funds were available it would contribute toward
the advancement of science to have one or two members of the staff of a liberal
arte college engaged in minor projects of research, such as could be carried on
satisfactorily with the equipment that such a college has.

In developing a program of postwar federal aid to scientific re-
search, attention should be given to the potentialities of these schools.
To the extent that our sample is representative, at least 40 percent of
the small liberal arts college in this country are desirous of conducting
research, and are prevented from doing so hy lack of funds.

Pait It

RESEARCH EXPENDITURES IN A SMALL SAMPLE OF
LEADING UNIVERSITIES, INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH LAB-
ORATORIES AND NONPROFIT SCIENCE INSTITUTES

To obtain a detailed picture of research expenditures in natural
aji^ce departments, a special investigation was made in 13 leading
raiiveraties and institutes of technology thtou^out the country.
In each nniv^^, the president was requested to appoint a consult:
ant in the natuw sciences to cooperate in securing the necessary

infortnation. Inquiries were made wifcli respect to the departments
of chemistry, physics and Kology, and of electrical, mechanical and
chemical engineering. In those universities which had medical
schools, similar inqniri^ were made in the departments of anatomy,
physiology, hiocheroistry, and bacteriology. The relevant data were
then compared with research expenditure® in 10 of our leading indus-
trial laboratories and in 7 nonprofit science institutes.

It should be remembered, in assessing the results, that the data
were prepared under pr^uro of time. The accounting systems in
different institutions differ widely; in some instances, detailed figures
could be obtained with relative ease, while in othei® it was necessary
to mate some rather crude guesses.

University Research Expenditures

Time and funds for research varied substantially between depart-
ments in the same university and between universities. Anmysis
of these variations suggests that much remains to be done if the
majority of natural scientists with research interests are to be given
the opportunities for r^arch that are available in the most favored
departments. Engineering departments, in general, appear to have
very meager funds for research, although there are a few notable
exceptions. At least two of the engineering schools under considera-
tion have undertaken far-reaching expansions in research activity
since the year 1940 — expansions not due to the war, and, indeed,
impeded by the war. If these are carried through according to
present plans, the postwar research picture in th^e institutions will
be very different from that for 1939-40.

Extraordinary variations are diown in the extent to which direct
research expenditures are met from outside sourc^^ — especially
grants from industry or the foundations. Many departments dmw
more than half of their support from th^e outside sources and some
of them get all their funds in this way.

Comparisons wcgre made of research expenditures in various uni-
versity departments, industrial laboratories and science mstitutes.
E:^ens^ were divided into prof^sional salaries and direct oper-
ating expenses of r^earch.^ This latter cat^ory included e^en^-
tures for equipment, apparatus, technical and r^arch distance,
publishing costs associate with r^aarch, etc. A calculatioii was
then made of the amount of these direct expenses in relation to pro-
fe^ional salaries. The minimum figure in any of the industrial
laboratories or mence institutes studied was about forty cents per
dollar of prof^ional salary; typical figures are near one dollar, and
in certain cases the figure was more than two, or even three, dollars.
The highest figures for the university departments — with one or two
striking exceptions, such as the chemistry department in mstitution
number 8 — are approximately the same as the lowest figures for the
industrial laboratories and science institutes. Typical figuree for
xmiversity departmente are about twenty cents per dofiar of salary,
a^d often are considerably lower.

Although it is very difficult to judge, there appeared to be a corre-
lation between the research contributions of a uinveraty department
and the amount of r^earch a»ssistance made availaMe to its profes-

1 See tai>le H-VI eoiiHOBS^ said sad Vm 3snl X

65944&-»45-- — &

119

sional workers. Ib the institutions and departments less adequately
proTided with such support there are man;^ men with research ability
whose productivity cmdd be significantly increased by the provision
of more adequate research funds. Such funds might be used to
diminish heavy teaching loads, which leave many men with little time
for research, and to provide essential apparatus and technical
a^istaace.

Time Devoted to Teaching and Research

The universities and engineering schools included in this siuwey
rank among the leading institutions of the country. In all of them
r^earch is fostered and encouraged, and is considered an important
factor in academic promotion. However, the various institutions
differ considerably in the relative empha^ given to teaching and
research. In a general way the 13 institutions may be said to fall
into two groups:

In group A, comprising institutions 1, 5, 8, 10, and 13, the teaching
load is relatively light, but varies considerably among individuals.
For some members of the staff it is moderately high, while for others
it is only 2 or 3 hours a week. These institutions are also likely to
have some research professors who do no teaching at all. Most mem-
bers of the staff are expected to devote more than half of their time to
r^arch. Of the five institutions that fall in group A, four are pri-
vately endowed. Nos. 1 and 5 are lai]ge universities in which a great
deal of r^earch is being actively carried on in all departments. No.
10 is a similar medium-size institution. No. 8 is an institution devoted
primarUy to the natural sciences and engmeexing. One very large
State university (No. 13) also appears to belong in this category, at
least, as regards some of its science departments.

Group B (Nos. 2, 4, 9, 11, and 12) is made up of important State
universities. The t^cMng load is considerably heavier in this group,
averaging around 12 class-room hours per week. Most members of
the staff, however, are able to devote about one-quarter of their time
to r^earch, and sometimes more. Eesearch professorships involving
little or no teaching ^ extremely rare in these universities.

Three private institutions (Nos. 3, 6, and 7) appear to lie some-
where between groups A and B in r^ard to the relative allocation of
time between teaching and research. No. 3 is a large privately
endowed university, associated with a large State agricultural school.
No. § is an important engineering school. No. 7 is a medium-size
liberal arts university.

In engineering' deparimefd^t tihe teach^ schedule is generally
considerably heavier than in phyrics, <^iemisky and biology; often it
runs to 18 class-room hours per we^. In some institutions, however,
the teaching sch^ule for engineers is no heavier than in other depart-
ments of the university.

In the medmd teaching (prewar) was frequent^- concentrated

in one 4-month term, during whi<m time the teaching load was fairly
heavy; but the remaining 8 monfe commoniy involved Httle or no
teadbing. Some institutions deviai^ from this pattern, but, on the
whole, mculty members in the medical sciem^s tend to have a large
fraction of their time available for resM«r<*.

In several institutions the amount of teaming done by men in the
lower aead«aic ranks was consid^ably h^hM* than for the full and

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (1939-40)

Departments of Physics

1

Institution
number »

2

Number of
professional
pereonnel

a

Number of
techaiclans,
secretsri®,
etc.

4

Salaries Of
prof^ional
Personnel
(thousauds)

5

Total depart-
ment budget
(thousands)

8

DlrootoiW'

fttingeipenaes

ofreseardbi)

(thousands)

7

Satie col-
umn 9 to
wlunmi

8

Percent of re-
search funds
from non-
university
sources

9

Number of
graduate
students »

19

Qraduatedepea awarded*

M.A.

Ph.D,

1

35

16

Hi

$169

29

57.6

5.2

7.6

2

26

4

41

54

7.6

.18

93

51

9

90

115

18

.20

47

37

3

6

a

52

92

84. S

.38

20

■EH

12

5

5,..-.

37

7

171

•39

.38

7

■H

6

6

56

148

245

27

.18

33

56

3

7

18.5

23

30

4

.17

^■11

14

3

2

8...

39.5

85

141

41

.48

95

68

8

8

9.........

31

1

87

62

9

.24

0

7

2

11

33

54

80

5

35

3

@

12....

18

3

27

35

2

■m

7

2

2

47

13

79

123

IIHIl

.88

0

72

4

8

» As follows;
I

Lar^prlvfttouiilwrally.

IrargeStstouJilyerBUy.

Large prlTato university associated with large state sploultural school.
Large State university.

Large private uiilveralty.

Large private engineering school,

Medium site liberal arts university.

Large State university,

10. Medium sl!e private university,

11. Large State university.

12. Meflum site State university.

18. 14rge State university.

* Mudee expendltiirei for equipment, ap ..ius, teobnloal and researeli assistance,
publtolngooslSBiiocIated with research, fl trips, emedltlons, etc.

» Average for the 8 years ending 1039-40.

4 Includes astronomy and physiologlcsd optics,

• After deducllag $l(),000 spenl on cyclotron.

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (193^40)

Departmcnb of Chemistry

1

Mltulion

aumbtff^

2

Number of
professional
peraonnol

3

Number of
tochnidans,
norotaries,
etc.

i

SalwlMof

professional

personnel

(thousands)

s

ToW depart-
ment budget
(thousan®)

8

Direct oper-
ating expenses
of research*
(thousands)

7

Ratio ool-
umnfito
column 4

8

Percent of re-
search funds
from non-
university
sources

9

Number of
paduate
studwits*

IB

DepciBWMded*

M.A.

Fb.D.

52

12

$103

$161

$23

0.22

60

133

13

25

%

17

161

181

34

.23

85

108

12

3

8...............

68

7

86

114

13

.15

60

60

9

12

4

109

12

121

171

73

.60

38.

161

21

18

5

82 1

20

194

236

43

.22

53

162

33

19

6., 1

75

173

231

20

.12

10

80

5

18

7....

S2

8

58

88

13

.221

10

20

1

5

8...

59.6

9

76

160

70

.92

83

34

3

5

1.. ,.j

55

2

69

101

11

.16

60

75

15

10

10.......

64

14

65

80

14

.22

61

2

13

11

21

18

126

163

7

124

18

18

12...

39

4

55

77

20

.37

60

' 38

5

5

13

^ 48

15

109

208

32

.29

0

45

3

12

» For oxplawtioD of Institutions^ see footnote a, table E » Average for the 3 years ending 1039-40.

» Includes expbditures fcr equipment, apparatus, teohiJBal and researdi asslstano(^ * Inoluaes both ohemlstry and chemical engineering,
publishing aom assoolated with research, field trips, eipedltions, etc.

€3

Table IV

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (1939-40)

Departments o( Biolosy (Zoolosy and Botany)

Several of these departments include physiology, biochemistry, and biophysics, but no medical school departments

are included

I

iMtltutlOE

number!

2

Number o(
proteionri
prsonnol,
etc.

8

Number ot
technicians,
secretaries,
eto.

illl

5

Total depart-
ment budget
(thoosends)

6

Direct oper*

aliugeipeMflS

ofresMTcli*

(thoiuands)

ill

8

Percent o( re-
soarchlun^
fromnon-
unlverslty
sources

9

Number of
graduate
studentfi

ID

Dsgre® awarded*

M.A.

Pb. D.

52

11

$127

$169.5

$38.5

0.30

1

58

6

12

56

12

96

123

20.7

.22

65

49

9

7

34

10

78

100

10.5

.10

hT

417

113

1,033

2,762

336

.33

!a+3b —

451

123

Ull

2; 862

346.5

.31

Hi

305

36

[...

61

28

126

164

13

.11

60:

127

27

11

L -

34

8

106

129

46

.42

23:

131

26

10

L...

20

2

81

79

8

.13

50;

25

1

1

r

26

I

60

75

2

.04

81

6

4

i

38

2

80

113

28

.35

70

18

1

4

14

3

31

52

11.4

.87

13

10

2

6

ut

60

6

103

128

6

85

16 1

14

1h5

85

20

137

205

18

75

14

13

.2

25

4

39

64

13

.33

100

23

4|

2

L

63

21

88

172

*39

.45

70

45

8*

7

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (1939-40)
Departments of Anatomy, Pliysiolojy and Bacteriology
ANATOMY

Number o{
profeisioml
psrsoimrf

Number of
tscbnldans,
leoretarleg,
eto,

Salaries of
professional
penonml
(tbousands)

Total depart*
mestbttd^t
(thoumds)

Dlreet oper*
atlngospcnses
ofimrehJ
(thousmids)

Ratio col-
amn 6 to
oolunini

Percent of 1^-
search funds
from non*
univtfglty
sources

Number of
gredualB
students*

17

5

$48

$61

$16.7

0J8

1

7

17

5

881

60

2.5

.07

10^

12

11

3

28

33

3

.11

0

U

19

87

145

27

.46

80

7

1§

8

25

35

0

12

PHYSIOLOGY

20

7

$62

$117

$22

0.35

10

88

6

17

9

46

76

30

.65

55

8

2

11

9

85

74

4

.11

0

9

1

16

9

58

100

40

.69

50

7

0

22

17

$66

BAQERIOLOG^

$26

1

0.46

10

20

6, .12

7.2 .34

«po41tQrN Ictr
itWot «Qltl

se«footaot?i,tsblalT.

ii, uia tipi, KptdftioBi, sLo.

i Amip Tor tiu 8 mn aodini lOSS-dO.

S^i

TaW«VI

ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH IN SELECTED UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS (193N0)
Departm«nts of Chemical Engineering and Electrical Engineering

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

1

lEHtltottUl

flontoi

t

Number of
proMouftl
penoiuKil

«

3

Number of
technlcluil,
eeoretaries,
eto.

4

EfllBrlei of
proMosl
wrsonuel
(thoueaudi)

3

Total depart-
meat budset
(IhoQgaiuu)

8

Direct oper-
ating upenesi
ofreiearcb*
(tbouimdi)

7

Katloool-
umnfito
column 4

8

Percent of re-
Btarchfunds
from non-
unH'orslty
hourcei

Number of
Rreduatfl
lludonli^

10

Pegrea awarded*

M.A.

Pb.D.

Q

1

117

123

13

0.18

8

2

a

17^

1

22

28

6

.28

27

11

3

a

la

3

57

88

14

.24

75

75

24

6

6.

sa

97

152

7.5

.08

80

13

9

9..,,.........,.

14

2

26

36

2

.08

0

30

7

4

10..

a

2

16

20

3.7

.23

6

0

1

11...

10

2

27

49

3

12

4

1

Tb report for Cbinical Engineering m Institution No, 2 is included in lb report for lb Chemistry Dcportmoiil

in table III.

Table VI— Continued

ELEQRICAL ENGINEERING

1

Inslltalioa
number »

2

Number of
professional
personnel

3

Number of
tedmldam,
seeiiWes,
etc,

4

Salaries of
proWoml
personnel
(tnowands)

5

Total depart-
ment budget
(thousands)

6

Direct oper-
allngespenses
of regard! •
(thousands)

7

Ratio col-
umn 6to
column 4

8

Percent of re-
leareh funds
from non-
university
sources

9

Number of
graduate
studenta*

10

DspM awarded*

M. A.

Pb.D.

3

21

2

$61

$60

$1.2

IRIil

6

4

1

1§

4

39

45

3.4

.09

21

6

1

S

13

3

44

54

.4

■■Bi

25

10

1

6 ..I

61

176

302

53

■■in

68

38

3

8..

12

0

20

241

3.5

.18

40

12

3

12

2

26

32

25

5

4

0

10.,

6

3

22

32

5.2

.24

li

2

IL....

13

6

44

80

^^■(1

3

1

I For erplanatloii of Inatltuto, goo footaoto a, table IL ‘ Average for the 8 years ending IS39-40,

* Uudes arpendltures for equipment, appatatus, teohnloal and research assistance,
publlsMnii ssts asodated with iwcb, field trips, expedltlens, eta.

Table VII

ANALYSIS OF RETURNS ON QUESTIONNAIRES SENT
TO INDUSTRIAL LABORATORIES AND NONPROFIT
SCIENCE INSTITUTES

[1 939 dafa]

INDUSTRIAL LABORATORIES

1

Beporting institutions

2

Salaries of
professional
personnel
(thousands)

3

Direct operating
aspensesof
research i
(fclwmsanda)

4

Number of
technical research
personnel per
professioiial
individual

5

Eatlo column 3
to column 2

1 » -

$253

$124

0.24

0,48

9

1, 225

1, 250

.40

1.02

1, 025

3, 709

1. 04

3,62

3oa

154

.39

.39

610

.50

.47

91

49

.29

.64

380

286

1.89

.76

46

102

.70

223

100

69

ZOO

.69

10 -

80

107

t

. 13

1.34

NONPROFIT SCIENCE INSTITUTES

1 »

$51

0.76

0.45

518

657

2 18

1.07

73

32

.53

.44

4

29

36

. 18

1.24

26

55

1.50

2 12

6

80

.53

,S2

7

347

483

.76

1. 39

I iBGic^es expeaditures for apparatizs, tedmleal azid res«rdi iwM.khfng costs

assayed with iweardi, field trips, expeditions, etc.

> I and 7 are farge electrical companies; 2 is a cmnmonkaticsis eompai!^; 3 and lareoEcmnpmies; a a
tege and 9 a small dbemical conCmi; 0 ^ a meat-paddng (xsipaoj; 8 is a gkss compmijr aod If ^ a large
fiatimacentical firm.

X I and 2 are institutions for medical researdi; 3, 4, and 5 lor biobgleal F^eardi; 6 and 7 fw resmrtii M tbe

pi^yaical sciences.

a^Ksiate professors. In other cases, the amount of teaching was

Sctically identical, r^ardl^ of r^ik. Oftei there were niM'ked
erenow between one department and anolher in the ^une nni veraty .
For instance, the chemiiAy departeeail in one inslitiition reported
the r^nlar teaching load in immm per week as: fnl prof^ssor^ 3;
i»ociate prof^o-rs, 8; assistant pfofa^rs, l§; inslmoto'm 12. This
is an imusnal amonnl of variatiQn with rank. Ills bk)l«^ oepyrte®!
k the same institution reported a nnifom %iiiaf€r ^ acad'emte
In this particular institution tim dhemistiy depirtoaent appears ^lo
have been mndh more estei^vdj ®dowOT tiiiii the other sei®^
departments.

1S7

Appendix 4

REPORT OF -M COMMITTEE ON DISCOVERY
AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC TALENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Letter of transmittal 129

Summary 130

IWaoe 1- 13^

1. Long-term plans - 139

1. The d^irability of and necessity for the proposed plans 139

2. The desirable and necessary extent of the proposed long-term

plans 142

3. The recommended long-term plan and means for achieving it_ 143

IL Plans for the near future 150

1. Befieits of scientific and technologies personnel resulting from

war and selective-service poHcSes 150

2. Plans for integrated scientific teaming for soldiers and sailors. > 152

3. The importance of quality of instruction in **Army universities' '

abroad. 153

4. The place of the GI Bill of Bights in ameliorating scientific and

technologic€d deficits... 154

5. Duties of schools, colleges, universities, and technical schools

to returning veterans 155

6 Importance of problem of scientific training of men in armed

forces 157

Appendix A. The educational pyramid: studies concerning able students

lost to higher education 158

Appendix B. Bata oonceming training of personnel for science and tech-
nology 169

Appendix C. Suggested administrative organization, bases of selection,
schedule and procedmes 172

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Junk 4, 1945.

Dr. Vakn*evar Bush,

Director f Office of Scientific Beseurch and Demlopfmnit
1580 P Street NW., Washington^ D, <7.

Dbae De. Bush: To assist you in making recommendations in
response to President Eoosevelt's letter of November 17, 1944, you
assigned consideration of the fourth question in that letter to the
following-named committee:

Dr. Henry A. Barton, director, American Institute of Physics.

Dr. C. Lmor Burdick, special assistant to the prmdent, E. I.
du Pont de N^ours & Co.

Dr. James B. Conaat, president, Harvard University.

Dr. Wateon Davis, dn^tor, Sdencse Sefrvice.

Dr. Robert E. Doherty, present, Carnegie Institute of Tech**
nology.

Dr. Paul E. Elicker, eLKecutive secretary. National Assodation of
Secondary Sch(X)l Prindpak.

Mr. Famham P. Griffiths, lawer, San Frandsco.

^ Dr. W. S. Hunter, profe^r of psychology, Brown University.

Dr. T. R. McConnell, dean, College of Saence, Literature, and
the Arts, University of Minnesota.

Mr. Henry Allen Moe, secretary general, John Simon Guggen-
heim Memorial Foundation.

Mr. Walter S. Rogers, director. Institute of Current World Affairs.

Dr. Harlow Shapiey, director. Harvard CoE^fe Observatory.

Dr. Hugh S, Taylor, dean of the graduate school, Princeton
University.

Dr. E. B. WEson, professor of vital statistics. Harvard University
School of Public Health.

Mr. Henry Chauncey and Mr. Lawrence K. Frank are the com-
mitteek secretaries.

The committee held only two meetings, but there has been <»nstant
interchange of materials by mail and we have conferred frequently
among ourselves and with others. The report herewith pr^anted is a
joint effort and it is ^eed to, both as to content and form, by the
whole committee. This result has b^n arrived at, not by compromise,
but by study of the relevant facts in the light of the committee mem-
bers^ varied experience, and by discussion and agr^ment upon the
conclusions to be drawn from those facts in the light of our experience.
RespectfuEy submitted,

Hbney Allkh Mo®,

Chairman, Committee on Diwomry and

Developimrd of Semdijic Tedeni.

SUMMARY

To the question asked of you by President Eoosevelt, ^^Can an
effective program be proposed for discovering and developing scien-
tific talent in American youth so that the continuing futxire of scientific
research in this country may be assured on a level comparable to what
has been done during the war?”, your committee reports aflSirmatively,
stating their considered judgment that an effective program of support
from the Federal Government to that end can be organized and, indeed,
must be organized in order to assure the continuation of scientific and
technological training and research on a scale adequate to the needs
of the Nation, in peace or war. There is a long history of support
granted by the Federal Government for training and research and it
£ our judgment that that type of support needs to be, and can be
successfully, extended to provide for those highly talented youth with
scientific interests and ability who must be assisted else they will not
be able to obtain the scientific and engineering training which they
merit and which the good of the Nation requires that they obtain.

Our proposals to th^e ends have two phases:

I. Ism§4erm aimed at ensuring through the long future an

adequate supply of scientists and engineers by discovering and
devdoping scientific talent in American youth; and

II. Phmfor the immediate future, aimed at making up, in part, the
deficits in Mie ranks of scientists and engineers resulting from the war
and the Nation's Selective Service policy.

L Long-Term Plans

Jhe Evidence for Our Conclusions

The intelligence of the citizenry is a national resource which tran-
se6n(k in importance all other natural resources. To be effective, that
int^igenoe must be trained. The evidence shows that many young
citizens of high intdligence fail to get the training of which they are
capable. The reasons for that failure are chiefly economic and
geo^pMcal and can be remedied.

provisions, hv scbolardiips and fellowships, are inadequate
to meet the needs of mis ^oup, nor will State, local, and private
plans for such a^istance, which are now under discussion, be adequate.
Our plans, simply,^ are plans^ — as respects science and engineering —
lo train for the national wdfare the hottest ability of the youth of the
NaMon without regacrd to where it was born and raised and without
r^riu^d to the size of the family income. Much of our evidence and
many of our condusiom on that evidence are applicable to fields other
than science apd engineering; hut our plans, naturally, do not go
beyond our mandate to make ' effective plans for the discovery and
development of scientific talent in American youth.

13a

The Necessary and Desirable Extent of the Proposed Plans

Ti^oi^hout our deliberations, we have had it in mind that, by
sciioiarsiiips and fellowships and monetary and other rewards in dis-
proportionate amounts, too large a percentage of the Nation's high
abilny might be drawn into science with a result highly detrimental
to the Nation and to science. Plans for the discovery and develop-
mei^^ of smentmc t^ent must be related to the other needs of society
for high abmty. Since there never is enough ability at high levels to
satisty all the needs of om complex civilization for such ability^ we
would not seek to draw mto science any more of it than science's
share. In that spirit of reasonablene^ our plans are:
We recomm^d that each year 6,000 4“year scholarships be awarded
to enable youth cu scientific promise to work for bachelor's d^rees in
scientific and technological fields. We recommend further that 300
3-year fellowships be awarded each year to enable the recipients to
obtain advanced trainmg leading to doctoral d^rees in science and
technology . The maximum total of Scholars, if and when the plan is
in full operation, would be 24,000 and the maximum total number of
Fellows would be 900. Maximum annual costs if the plan is to be
realized fully may reach, after the fourth year of operation, $29,000,000.

Outline of the Plan and of the Means for Achieving If

The Scholars should be chosen by State committees of selection and
the Fellows by a national committee of selection. The Scholars shall
be eligible for the fellowships but the fellow^ps shall also be open
to other qualified students.

We recommend that, for the Scholars, the scale of support should he
that provided by the GI bill of rights for veterans, namely up to
$500 annuaUy for tuition and other fees, plus $50 monthly for personal
support if single, and $75 monthly if married. For the Felows, there
should be an allowance up to $500 for tuition and other fees and up to
$100 monthly for personal support.

The Scholars and Fellows should be chosen soMy on the bas» of
merit, without regard to sex, color, race, creed, or need.

All those who receive benefits under this plan, both Scholars and
Fellows, should be enrolled in a National Science Eeserve and be liable
to call into the service of the Federal Government, in connecticm with
scientific or technical work in time of war or other national emergen^
declared by Congress or proclaimed by thei Fre&i<I«it. Thiw, in
addition to the general benefits to the Nation by reason of the addi-
tion to its trained ranks of such a corps of sden^w workers, th^
would be a definite benefit to the Nation in haviig tiiese sdanlffic
workers on call in national emeigencies, EviteOe preemted to the
committee shows that, if such a science reserve had been in
in 1940 and had included many of &© b^| fee mobilization

of scientific men before Pearl Harbor would have been mu^ more
rapid and effective than it was possible to make it.

We believe that the obligation undertaken by fee recipients of
National Science Eeserve ^^.nolarships and fellomhips would consti-
tute a real Quid pro cruo and that the Federal Goveitenent would ^
weU advised to invest the money involved even if feebmefits to the
Nation were thought of solely — which they not ^in terms of
national preparedness.

131

As m&iif should he the sole b^is of selecting the Scholara and Fel-
lows, likewise merit should be the sole basis of their continuing to hold
their scholaxships and fellowships — 4 years for the Scholars and a
maximum of 3 years for the Fellows. Unless the Scholars and F allows
maintain good behavior, good health, and scientific progress in the top
quarter of their classes, the assistance they are receiving should be
terminated.

The quotas of scholarships to be awarded by the State (and Terri-
torial) committees of selection should he determined by the number of
their se(X)ndary school graduates of the previous year as related to the
national total of such graduates. That is, the national total of 6,000
sdbolarships would be prorated to the States in the same proportion
as their high school graduates bear to the whole national total of such
graduate.

We recommend that the establishment of the organization to operate
the plan and its supervision be entrusted to the National Academy of
Science — the top scientific organization of the country and the one
which, through ttie years since its establishment in 1863, has shown
itsdf to have the knowledge, int^rity, ability to withstand pressures,
and concern for the national welfare, which will be required.

II. Plans for the Immediate Future

Because Selective Service policte have not taken account of the
Nation^s vitd needs for scientists and engineers, the training of men
in the fields of science and technology during the war has almost
completely stopped. Because of these stoppages, not until at least 6
years after the war will scientists trained for research emerge from the
graduate schools in any; significant quantities. Consequently, there
m an accumulating deficit in the number of trained research scientists
and that deficit wml continue for a number of years.

The deficits of bachelor^s degrees in science and technology are
already probably about 150,000.

The deficits of scientific doctoral degrees — that is, of young scholars
trained to the point where they are capable of original work — has been
estimated, for the period 1941 projected to 1955, to be more than
16,000.

AH patriotic citizens who are informed about these matters agree
that, for military security, good public health, full employment, and
a h^er standard of living after the war, these deficits are very serious.
Neither our allies, nnr our enemi^, permitted any such deficits to
devdop but on the contr^ maintained or iucreased national programs
for the training of scimtists mid engineers.

The feasible remedies in the situation, as we find it now, appear to
us to be these:

1. We recommend that the R^earch Board for National Security
and the Aimy and Navy find men who, before thrir induction and
during their service, have shown promise of scientific ability and that
Aey be orda:^, by name, to duty in Hie United States as students for
training in mence and eo^heermg of a grade and quality available
to civilians in peacetime Tim should be adopted as the considered
policy of the armed service and no desire of a commanding officer to
retain a potential scientist for his usefulness on the spot should be
aflowed to interfere with the operation of the poEcy. ^

Merit should be the sole basis for the selection of th^e studeuts aad
merit alone should determine the number selected- We think that
probably the total would be no more than 100,OCW and that number,
following VE-day, could not be militarily significant. For building
up the Nation's scientific strength, however, that number would be
very significant. If well sd^ted on their merits as students of
science, th^e men would constitute the premium crop of future scien-
tists and we know that the future of our country in peace and war
depends on that premium crop.

Under this proposed plan, be it noted, there would be no disruption
of plans aJreaiiy made for the discharge of soldiers from the Army.
WMIe studente, their dischai^es would occur in accordance with the
already established rating scale. It would not do to propose that such
a plan should be done on a volunteer basis — that is, that personnel of
the Army and Navy should request orders to duty as students. It
would not do because many of the best of them probably would not
request such orders, from feelings that they would not wish to be put
in the position of seeming to shirk their full patriotic duty.

2. The Army has made plans for setting up in foreign countries,
when and where the military situation permits, courses of study for
soldiers, including courses in science and technology. These plans
are all to the good. The further important thing to ensure is that the
courses shall be the best and most up-to-date that can be given.
Unless it is to do a disservice to the soldiers taking its training, the
Armed Forces Institute must be prepared with instruction that is
wholly up to date in its higher levels; but the fact of the matter re-
mains that since the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the
CaHornia Institute of Technology, the Ryerson Laboratory of the
University of Chicago, and others, cannot be moved abroad, the plan
for Army universities must be supplemented by what we have sug-
gested in our first proposal above.

3. Public Law 346, Seventy-eighth Congr^, commonly known as
the GI Bill of Rights, provides for the education of veterans of this
war under certain conditions, at the expense of the Federal Govern-
ment. Among the returning soldiers and sailors will be many with
marked scientific talent which should be developed, through further
education, for the national good. However, the 1 year of education
which the law provides for essentially all veterans clearly will not be
enough to train a scientist nor in most instances to complete training
begun prior to entry into the armed forces. The law makes the
amount of education beyond 1 year at Government expense depend
on length of service rather than on ability to profit from the education.

It appears to us that our mandate to set up an effective plan for
discovering and developing scientific talent must take into account
the scientmc potentialities among the 10,0€0,000 youig Americans
now in the armed forces. To th& end, it is recommended that the
Veterans' Administration set up an adequate counseling service for
those veterans of marked scientific talent and that a complete scientific
education at Government expense be provided for a ^up of them
selected on the basis of merit and irrespective of the length of their
military service. Here, a^in, we believe it best to recommend that
standards of scientific ability be the limiting factom rather than to
suggest that definite numbers be selected for training. Amendment
of the GI Bill of Rights, to make that law an instrument for the

133

amelioratiori of the deficits of scientists resulting from the war and
Selective Service policy, seems to us essential for the safety and con-
tinued prosperity of the Nation,

The adequate handling of the education of the scientific and
technologic^ talent now under arms will be a primary test of the
effectiveness of the Government in meeting the whole problem to
wMch we have been asked to direct our attention. The futtire scien-
tific and technical leaders in the United States are now largely in
military service. Unl^ exceptional steps are taken to recruit and
train t^ent from the armed services at or before the close of the war,
the future will find this country seriously handicapped for scientific
and technological leadership. In peace or war, the handicap might
prove fatal to our standards of living and to our way of life.

134

PREFACE

You asked us to advise you upon the fourth question of President
Koosevdit^s letter to you concerning future scientific development in
the United Stat^. 'ftie qu^tion is:

Oaa SM effective program be proposed for discovering and developing scientific
talent in American youth so that the continuing future of scientific research in this
country may be assured on a level comparable to what has been done during
the war?

In our judgment the answer to the question is in all respects in the
affirmative. We conclude also that program envisaged by the
question is both necessary and desirable. The difficult questions are
upon the necessary and desirable extent of such a program and upon
the best means for its accomplishment.

Our report, accordingly, wiH be under three heads: the nece^ity,
the extent and the means for making the envisaged program effective.

There are, however, some general considerations which we deem it
weU to place before you prior to proceedir^ to the body of this report.

President Eoosevelt's letter to you looks toward a science that wifi
be a decisive element in the national welfare in peace as it has been in
war. He said, “New frontiers of the mind are before us, and if they
are pioneered with the same vision, boldness, and drive with which we
have waged this war we can create a fuller and more fruitful enoi'
ployment and a fuller and a more fruitful life/^ It is dear that
the letter refers to science as the word is commonly imderstood, or,
more technically described, to science now witbin the purview of the
National Academy of Sciences, that is, to mathematics, the physical
and biological sciences includmg psychology, geology, g^>graphy and
anthropology and their engineerii^, industrial, agriculturS and med-
ical applications. To science in this sense, therefore, the recommend-
ations in this report will be limited.

The statesmanship of science, however, requires that science he
concerned with more than science. Science can only be an effective
element in the national welfare as a member of a team, whether the
condition be peace or war.

As citizens, as good citizens, we therefore think that we must
have in mind while examining the question before us — the discovery
and development of scientific talent — the needs of the whole nation^
welfare. We could not suggest to you a program which would
syphon into science and technology a disproportionately large share
of the Nation^s highest abilities, without doing harm to the Nation,
nor,^ indeed, without crippling science. The very fruits of science
become available only through enterprise, industry and ^dom on
the part of others as well as scientists. Science cannot live by and
imto itself alone.

This is not an idle fancy. Germany and Japan show us that it is
not. They had fine science; bnt because they did not have govern-
ments “of the people, by the people and for the people'^ the world
is now at war. Tms is not to say that science is r^ponsible: it is to

135

say, however, that, except as a member of a larger team, science is of
limited value to the national welfare.

The uses to which high ability in youth can be put are various and,
to a lai^e extent, are determined by social pressures and rewards.
When aided by selective devices for picking out scientifically tainted
youth, it is clear that large sums of money for scholarships and
feEowships and monetary and other rewards in disproportionate
amounts might draw into science too large a percentage of the Na-
tion's high ability, with a result highly detrimental to the Nation
and to science. Plans for the discovery and development of scientific
talent must be related to the other needs of society for high ability:
smence, in the words of the man in the street,^ must not, and must
not try to, hog it all. This is our deep conviction, and therefore the
plans that we shall propose herein wul endeavor to relate the need
of the Nation for science to the needs of the Nation for high-grade
trained minds in other fields. There is never enough ability at high
levels to satisfy all the needs of the Nation; we would not seek to
draw into science any more of it than science's proportionate share.

Through all ages of civilization far-seeing men and women and gov-
ernments have been concerned with the necessity of providing for the
leadership of the future, as one essential factor in the survival, or
progress, of civilization. Provision for the leadership of the future is
nectary because high ability, adventmous talent, is not born only
into famili^ that can pay for its development. It is a fact that a large
proportion of tie world's best brains and finest spirits have attained
or accelerated their development through outside support, of the type
that we shotdd call scholarship or fellowship assistance. This is a
profound social fact: a l£uge part of the world's leaders in science and
other fields of scholarship, in the creative arts, and even in public
affairs, has required a financial leg up, while working toward leader-
ship.

Upon any study of the histoiy of the development of leadership we
may be reasonably sure that a laige part of the men and women who
in future will lead us in all walks of l£fe will need extraordiaary boosts
up the ladder at some stages of their careers — boosts provided by
individuals, institutions, and governmental agencies, on the basis of a
showii^ of very special ability — ^in the form of scholarships, feUow-
shii^, and grants-in-aid.

No nation has ever done as wdl as we have in equalizing educational
opportunity, nor, probably, in giving the most adequate opportunity
to the best; but it can easily be shown, and we shall show it, that we
could do better. And we also shall show how we as a nation can do
better.

Why we as a nation should be conceded to do better appears in
the following statement by Dr. Robert Gordon Sproul, President of
the University of California — a statement of such cogency and sound
common sense that we are glad to adopt it as our own:

Ooe of the major responsibilities of the university of the future, is to se^ that
the money it spends ^ * goes toward the education of the most worthy

candidates in each generation. The intelligence of the citizenry of a nation is a
natural resource which transcends in importance all other natural resources * * ♦
0^ may condone the waste of many natural resources on the ground that science
ifffl msae day discover a substitute that is just as good. But intelligence is quite
and though lienee search diligently it will never find a substitute for it,
nor wffl the war lords.

Universities ♦ ^ conservators of the above-average intelligence of

the nation * * * Every coniervatlon prc^rain mtiat proceed along two
lines: it must safeguard the known reserves of a given resource, and it must also,
through exploration and every other means, make a detennined effort to ascertain
accurately the further supplies of that resource.

We do not know how much intelligence the citizenry of this Nation is capable
of producing. We jmy little attention to intelligence unless it forces it^lf to the
surface and trickles into a college or university by force of gravity. If it happens
to come to the surface in the backwoods area or a rural district, where the process
of trickling down to college is made difficult by distance and by lack of funds, the
chances are that the trickle will sink into the earth again, “unwept, unhonored,
and unsung''; — ^unle^, of course, it happens to be one of the fs^test running,
highest-iumping, or quick^t trickles on track, court, or gridiron.

Acrom the contineBt from Ihr. Sproul, Dr. James B. Conant,
Ptesident of Harvard University and a member of this Committee,
coming at the question from anoth^ direction, has made a statement
to like effect which his colleagues of the committee woidd adopt as
their own:

* * * in every section of the entire area where the word science may

properly be applied, the limiting factor is a human one. We shall have rapid or
slow advance in this direction or in that depending on the number of really firsts
class men who are engaged in the work in question. If I have learned anything
from my experience in Washington as chairman of the National Defense Reroarch
Committee, it is that ten second-rate men are no substitute for one first-class man.
It is no use pouring second-class men on a problem, even if you are under the
greatest pressure for a solution; second-class men often do more harm than good.
So in the last analysis, the future of science in this country will be determine by
our basic educational policy.

And finally we would quote the Board of Regents of the State of
New York who recently declared:

The need is imperative for enrolling the ablest young people of the State in
institutions of higher education. This proposal is defensible not in terms of the
desire of the colleges to obtain students. Fundamentally, the case rests on the
need of any state to bring its best minds up to a high level of understanding and
accomplishments.

This statement also we adopt as basic to our thinking.

The data which prove the truth of the quoted statements are wdU
known and some parts of them are set forth in a Appendix A attached
to this report. Here we simply mve samples and it is to be noted
that these samples apply not on^ to scientific ability in American
youth but to ability generally:

An Indiana study published in 1922 showed:

If we compare the records made on our t^ts by the group erf seniors reprinting
the richest and the poorest homes, we find that there are proportionally more
children possessing the highest grades of mental ability among the poor^t class
than among the wealthiest class, and more individuals with high average grades
of intelligence among the wealthier than among the poorer ^up. The we*dthi«t
group ranks high on central tendency. The poorest salanki group ranks low on
central tendency and also has a larger percentage of individuals pc»sesring the
lower grades of mental ability. But there are inmviduals in this cl^ vrho obtain
the highest intelligence rating made by high school seniors. * * ^

It is still more significant that so many erf this mc^ superior group of high-
school seniors will not attend college, while those with the most inferior grades of
intelligence are planning to attend, in ever increasing numbers. Twenty-five
percent of the brightest seniors found in the entire State said they were not plan-
ning to attend college at ail, while 65 to 70 percent of the dullest seniors had
definitely decided to go to (w>llege, most of them having already selected tim
college they expected to attend.

In Minnesota, it was shown that the probabiity of collie attend-
ance for a high school graduate of high oolite ability who is the son
or daughter of a father emjdoyed in a prof^ional or man^eriai

137

group is several times greater than that for the son or daughter of a
farmer or unskilled laborer. This study also showed that for every
high school graduate who ranked in the upper ten percent of his high
^ool cla^ and enrolled in college, another high school graduate who
also ranked in the upper 10 percent did not enter college.

A Pennsylvania study showed that, in that State, dividing a sam-
pling of the youth of approximately equal high ability into two socio-
economic groups, 93 percent of children of the upper socio-economic
group were graduated from high school and 57 percent attended
college. But in the lower socio-economic group, only 72 percent of
the children were graduated from high school and only 13 percent
attended collie.

As emphasized, this report is concerned with discovering and devel-
oping scientific talent, hut in its proper setting and relationship to
other needs for talent for the Nation's welfare. In the report we shall
suggest, as befits our mandate, the appropriation of Federal funds to
be applied only to the purpose of discovering and developing scien-
tific talent; but, as we have pointed out, we recognize that there is need
for the discovery and development of talent in all lines and we point
out that most of the plans and procedures recommended herein for
science are equaQy applicable to the discovery and development of
talent in other fields.

What shall be done with Federal funds for the discovery and develop-
ment of talent, scientific and other, in American youth is for the wis-
dom of Congress to determine. As taxpayers and as men concerned
with the statesmanship of science, we have been deeply concerned with
the question how piiis for the use of Federal funds for scientific
development may be set up so that Federal funds do not drive out of
the picture funds from local governments, foundations, and private
persons. We think that our proposals will minimize that effect, but,
with proper candor, we do not think that our proposals will be com-
pletely effective to avoid what we do not want to happen. We think,
however, that the Nation's need for more and better science is such
that the risk must be accepted.

In this report, consoDant with our mandate to make effective
plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent in Ameri-
can youth, we recommend plans to assist able young men and women
to carry their studies from the end of high school though the doctor?
ate. Beyond that we do not go in our recommendations, not only
because we do not think the word ^^youtb" ought to be stretched to
include men and women of post-doctoral age, but also because ypur
comonaittees reportmg upon other questions in President Roosevelt's
letter 4re making reconEimendations for assistance to post-doctoral
inv^lagators. For our part, we are of opinion that the basic problem,
at le^t for the next decade, will be to find more young talent and to
give it a chance to develop into more first-rate investigators than we
now have.

That is the problem at which this report aims. At present the op-
portunities for education beyond hi^ school are accidental to too
large an ^tent — determined by the acdklents of geography and
econmnic income. We seek, in this constitutional Republic, as
r^pects mence and engiheering, to train for the national welfare the
hi^mt ability without regard to where it was born and reared and ,
without regard to the size of the family income.

I. LONG-TERM PLANS

1. Tfie Desirability of and Necessity for tbe Proposed Plans

We are convinced that there is no possibility that too much abiEty
of the highest order can be discovered^ and devdoped: the needs of
our Comdex social organization for brains and character at the high-
est level can never be surfeited. Moreover, it is appropriate to point
out, when considering the need for scientific training,^ that the first-
rate scientist and engineer cannot do his work effectively unl^ he
has a few good ones in a secondary role at his disposal as a^istanlB
and sometimes a great many as hands and as instruments for the
execution of his ideas.

We have only to look about us, from the point of view of citizms,
to know that the current need for creative brains is not being met:
there is too much wrong with the world and with our country to have
doubt about that. As scholars and administrators of scholarly affftim
we also know out of our own experiences that there is a deficiency in
the supply of first-rate scientific workers. All of us know of problems
in science whose solutions are urgently needed for individual and
collective welfare. The limiting factors, ail along the line, are brains
and character.

In Appendix A attached to this report, some startling figures are
given as to the number of young people who drop out before com-
pleting high school. The coimtiy may be proud of the fact that 95
percent of boys and girls of fifth grade age are enrolled in our schools, i
but we cannot help hieing concerned with the fact that with each sue- 1
ceeding grade the percentage falls. For every 1,000 students in the
fifth grade, 600 are lost to education before the end of high school has
been reached, and all but 72 have ceased formal education before 4
years of college are completed. While this report is concerned pri- ,
marily with methods of selecting and educating high school graduates
at the college and higher levels, we cannot be un{x>ncemed the
potential loss of talent which is inherent in the present situation in our
primary and secondary schools.

The Nation's students may be diagrammed as a P3rramid. At the
base of the diagram are the students begiiming the first grade. Ab
we keep looking at this body of stedents, they^ drop out more and
more rapidly and the sides of the diagram slope in sharply, making a
pyramidal figure. ^ . j.

Students drop out of grade and high schools for a vanely of reasons.
The reasons which concern us in this report are only ^(Be whim
relate to the highly talented. Many of these; individuals of grmt
promise who are lost in the process are acadepmo msuallies undoubt-
edly to be charged against the inadequacy of Ihelocai sMondary ^uca-
tion available to them. Studies of the situation in differait States

139

show that the problem is by no means the same throughout the coun-
try. The figure that have been given above are the over-all figures
for the Nation: in some States the loss is much loss, in others much
greater. Unless one were to believe — ^which we do not — that there is a
corr^ponding difference in the distribution of native ability among
the Stat^, one cannot help reachi^ the conclusion that the differences
reflect great variation in the quality of our secondary education.

It is not within our mandate to enter into the controversial subject
of the way in which a larger amount of public fimds should be expended
on sTOondary education in those States where the amount now spent
per pupil is very low, and it is surely no coincidence that it is in these
veiy Stat^ that we find the losses, from the fifth grade on, to be the
great^t. We would be remiss in our duty, however, if we did not
point out that much remains to be done to make our educational
system effective in developing the latent talent of the Nation by
improving the quafity of the secondary schools in many localities so
that no boy or girl of talent and promise may be deprived of the proper
h%h school education.

Among those who drop out before completing high school, both in
the States which provide excellent public education and in those which
are less advanced in this respect, there undoubtedly are some at least
who have potentialities for becoming first-rate scientists and engi-
neers, The early discovery of such individuals who have dropped
put of the educational system obviously presents peculiar dfficulties.
The committee suggests to employee, and to educational, scientific,
and labor leaders Siat serious consideration be given to the problems
involved in the discovery of such individuals and in getting them
hack into educational institutions where their talents can be developed
in spite of their lack of complete high school training.

Students drop out of high school, college, and graduate school, or do
not get that far, for a variety of reasons. The reasons that concern
us are only those which relate to the talented and they are (1) that
they cannot afford to go, (2) that schools and colleges providing work
of interest and up to the level of their abilities are not available locally,
and (3) that buriness and industry recruit from among the ablest be-
fore they have finished the training of which they are capable.

Th^ reasons apply generally, but they apply with particular force
to sdmee:

1. The educarionai road to becoming a high-grade scientist is long
* and eacpensive, and the families of many able students cannot afford to

pay their way. It is of a length at least 6 years beyond high school
and it is esxpmsive because, as is evident, no large percentage of science
students can get first-rate training in educational institutions while
living at home.

2. Students of scientific capability are particularly vulnerable to
bad or inadequate mathematical and scientific teaching in secondary
school which fails to awaken their interest in science or to give them
adequate instruction. Improvement in the teaching of science all
along the line is imperative. To become a first-rate scientist it is
B^se^ary to get a good start early, and a good start early means good
^ccmdary school ^ience teacl^. No matter how gifted and capable
a pei^BL may be. if he is not interested to finish secondaiy school, or
diM^aot have the opportunity to complete secondary school, he
cannot — as things are — go on to college and to graduate school.

3. R^ruitment from gifted students by business and

industry likewise appli^ with particular force to science. A yoi^
man may well find the place in which eventually he will achieve high
distinction in industry, following graduation from collie, if his place
ought to be, for example, in management or applied science. But if
his place, considering his abilities, might be at the top in scientific
research, he will he seriously handicapped if he stops his training
without proceeding to the level represented by the doctorate, in-
dustry and busing cannot afford, as a long-term proposition, to
recruit, prior to completion of training, those potential scientiste who
appear capable of contributing to fundamental advances or who
should M teachers.

In tJi© light of the studies made, havir^ r^ard to the facts of the
educational pyramid, it clearly is essentM to provide for the mrly
schooling of more able students in order that a large mough group
will survive to become a larger quota of students of the hi^^t ^ilty
at the apex of the pyramid. To increase this small group of es:cep-
tionally able men and women it is necessary to mlai^e the number
of students of high ability who go to collie. This involve better
high schools, provision for helping individual, talented studente to
finish high school (primarily, we conceive, rmponsibilities of every
local community), and op.i>ortunities for more capable, promising high
school students to go to college. Any other practice constitute an
indefensible and wasteful utilization of higher education and neglect
of oin: human resources.

If we were all-knowing and all-wise we might, but we think probably
not, write you a plan whereby there might be sdected for training,
which they otherwise would not get, those who, 20 years hence, would
be scientific leaders and we might not bother about any Ie®er mani-
festations of scientific ability. But in the present slate of knowledge
a plan cannot be made which will select, and assist, only those young
men and women who will give the top future ieaderstop to science.
To get top leadership there must be a relatively large base of hi^
ability selected for development and then successive sBrnmings of the
cream of ability at successive times and at higher levels. No one can
select from the bottom those who will be the leaders at the lop because
unmeasured and unknown factors enter into scientific, or any, leader-
ship. There are brains and character, strength and health, happiness
and spiritual vitality, interest and motivation, and no one knows
what else, that must needs enter into this supra-mathematical calculus.

We think we probably would not, even if we were ad-wise and all-
knowing, write you a plan whereby you would be assured of scientific
leadership at one stroke. We ttmik as we think because wc are
not interested in setting up an elect. We think it much the b^t
plan, in this constitutional Republic, that opportunity be held out to
all kinds and conditions of men whereby they can better themselves.
This is the American way ; this is the way the United States has become
what it is. ^ e think it very important that circumstances be such
that there be no ceilings, other than ability itself, to intellectual
ambition. We think it very important that every boy and girl shal
know that, if he shows that he what it takes, the sky is the limit.
Even it be shown subsequently that he has not what it takes to go
to the top, he wifi go further than he would otherwise go if there had
been a ceiling beyond which be always knew he could not aspire.

By proceeding from point to point and taking stock on the way, by
giving further opportunity to those who show themselves worthy of

141

further opportuuitj, by giving the most opportunity to those who
sliow themselves oontmually developing — this is the way we propose.
This is the Amerioan way; a man works for what he gets.

2. The Desirable and Necessary Extent of the Proposed
Long-Term Plans

As ^d m tike general preamble to this report, we think that plans
for the discovery and development of scientific talent should have a
hmit rdated to the needs of the Nation as a whole for trained talent
in all activities that are necessary for the national welfare. We
tMnk, also as stated? that while we have no fears that too much top
ability can be found and developed there is some danger that too
many scientists of less than top ability may be trained, thereby debas-
ing the currency of scientific training to the point where scientific
careers may not look attractive either to the best or to the second best.

How to calculate the Nation's future needs for scientists, or to
document fully a judgment upon the question, we confess we do not
know. But we have some evidence to support what we, at any rate,
regard as informed conclusions. This evidence is set forth in Appendix
B attached hereto. In summary it shows the following facts germane

to this report: i ? ?

In the year 1941 there were conferred 53,534 undergraduate degrees
in natural science and iu technology.

In the last 6 years before the war, the average annual number of
Ph.D. degrees conferred in natural science and technological fields
was 1,649.

For some years to come, as pointed out elsewhere in this report,
these numbers must be increased in an attempt to make up for the
accumulate deficits in trained scientific and technological personnel
caused by wartime interruptions to basic education and specialized
training.

We nave carefully studied data and indications concerning the
Nation's future needs for scientists and technologists as a basis for
determining the nece^ary and desirable extent of plans for discovering
and developing scientific talent. We have conduded that the best
that can be done is to make a practical, executive judgment after
consideration of the material; and such a judgment leads us to propose
that 6,000 science students annually be selected for assistance in
obtaining the bachelor's de^ee. This number we judge to be not
too large from any point of view or too small to be effective.

Similarly, making an executive judgment upon numbers of students
proposed to be assisted annually to obtain doctoral degrees in science,
we arrive at the figure 250, plus 50 for medical research doctorates
unless your Committee upon the second question in President Roose-
velt's letter makes a separate recommendation on fellowships in that
field, which we understand is not their present intention. It is not
intended that the 50 proposed medical-research pre-doctoral fellow-
ships shall be administered nor allocated separatdy but simply that
the recommended total number of pre-doctor^ fellowships be increased
to 300-

The number 250 is arrived at by considering, mter aim, that it would
be 10 percent of the prewar average of science doctorates conferred,
165, |dus a number endeavoring to make up some of the science
doctoral deficit incurred during the war years when science students,

m

practically, have been and are nonexistent. Our thinking concerning
the added 50 medical research doctorate go^ along the same lin^.

Th^e figures, we wish to emphasize, are not provable but equally
we wdsh to emphasize they appear reasonable to us. It hstfe been in
our thinking throu^out this report that we do not want to inflate
or debase the currency of scientific training by artificially stimulating
its issuance beyond the Nation’s needs'for such training.

Further, we d^ire to emphasize the point that, until we see the look
of the postwar world, policies cannot be determined with finality.
And, until *polici^ can be determined, alternative plans, and sliding
scales wiliini those plans, are the only plans that make sense. We
caiMot, as we have said, guarantee that our figure of 6,000 assisted
science students in each entering class and 250-300 assisted candi-
dates for science doctorates a year are the correct figure for the
needed result. We conclude, simply, that they are good figure with
which to begin, always provided that they be not frozen and may be
changed in the light of experience and as future demands for scientists
and need for Federal assistance in training them may he shown.

Elsewhere in this report it is recommended that the administrative
agency which may be charged with making our proposals operative
be charged also with a continuing research function in which studies
of opportunities for scientific and technological employment should
have a major place.

When considering the question whether or not the group of under
graduates selected for trainmg under the plan herein recommended
be too large, it ought to be remembered that the majority will not
go on to research careers but rather to various kinds of engineering
practice, plant management activities and to many other kiuds of
practical work connected with industry and technological process^.
For industries based on highly advanced scientific technique which
must be adapted constantly to new scientific discoveries, training in
science is essential throughout the management, and while it cannot
be said that a man, because he is a good scientist, is therefoife a good
manager for such a business, stfll without scientific training, he could
hardly function at all. Moreover, for such a business a scientific
training is, the business, probably as good a training m any
other.

Furthermore, in reference to scientific training at the undergraduate
level, we quote with approval a statement by a distinguished committee
of English scholars, from social, humanistic and science fields, pub-
lished by Nuffield College of the University ^of^Oxford:

* * * We live in a world in which science lies at the very roots of com-

jnunity, and a mastery of scientific thinking grows more and more indispensable
for the successful practice of the arts of life. The culture of the modem ^e, if
it is to have meaning, must be deeply imbued with scientific ways of thought.
It must absorb science, without forsaking what is of value in the older ways or
conduces to the understanding of those deeper problems which science by itself
is impotent to answer. It is a question, not of substituting a scientific culture
for that which has gone before, but of reaching a wider appreciation in which the
sciences in their modem development fall into their due place * *

3. The Recommended Long-Term Plan and Means for
Achieving It

As stated in the preceding section, we propose that the number of
undergraduate students of science and technology assisted under the

143

plan shall be 6,000 annually and that the number of assisted doctoral
students in the same fields shall be 250 or 800 annually. This would
make the 4-year maximum total of undergraduates 24,000 and the 2-
to 8-year#maximum total of graduate students 900. Maximum annual
costs, if the plan is to be realized fully, may reach, after the fourth
year of operation, §29,000,000.

It is our idea that these highly selected students, if they proceed to
doctorate, in many cases will be able to obtain that degree after 6
years of undergraduate and graduate work; but pro vision should be
made for those who require 3, instead of 2, years of graduate work.

In this connection, we wish to emphasize the responsibility of edu-
cational institutions in this plan, under the central purpose of ^ the
— to provide scientific training for students of superior ability
and equal opportunity to aU American youth to qualify in competition
for such training — educational institutions wiU face the obligation of
providing a training commensurate intellectually with the superior
ability of this special group. The Committee believes that a pro^am
which is appropriate for the rank and file of college students will not
be appropriate for these, or other, highly selected individuals.

It appears to us that the scale of support for the undergraduate
students selected under the proposed plan should be that provided
by Congress under the so-called GI Bill of Eights, namely, tuition
and other fees up to $500 annually and, for person^ support, $50 a
month during the months of each year when the scholars actuaEy
are engaged in full-time study. Benefits under the plan should not
be restricted to young and recent secondary school graduates but
should be available also to those who, having worked in business and
industry, desire to obtain scientific training at the college level.
Such Scholars, it married^ should receive, as also provided in the GI
Bill of Eights, $75 monthly for support when engaged in full time
study.

Persons who receive benefits imder the plan should be selected
solely 0% the basis of merit, without regard to sex, race, color, or creed.

The question whether or not financial need should be considered
as a factor in awarding benefits under the plan has been the subject
of much study, consultation, and thoughtful consideration by the
Committee. We conclude that need should not he a factor in the
awards, for many reasons, among which are that, if need is to be
considered, th^e would be required a means test of the parents,
difficult if not impossible to administer with equity; those who receive
benefits under the plan would be labded as poor; and in cases where
parents were not sympathetic to higher education their children
might be cut off from the benefits of the plan.

Moreover, we consider that, apart fiom and in addition to the
general benefits to the Nation flowing from the addition to its trained
ranks of such a corps of scientific workers, the*e should he a definite
and stated quid fro quo from the bkieficiaries to the Nation. Hence,
we propose that the beneficimes under the plan should constitute a
National Science Eeserve, with definite and stated obligations to the
Nation for scientific work similar to the obligations of members of
the Army and Navy Eeserves for service of the kind for which they
have been prepared.

We suggest that recipients of under^aduate ^hoIarsMps under the
proposed plan be known as National Science Eeserve Scholars and that

144

recipients of pre-doctoral fellowsMps be called National Science
Reserre Fellows,

^ «*«*juuuuutg XV/X'

.^co^cAux H ut^ee snould be based upon t^ts of ability and aptitude
to ensure that the successful candidates will be oriented to scientific
and technolorical pursuits. Moreover, acceptance of the Scholar-
ships and Fmowrships should be understood by the recipients as
inmcating intmtion to engage prof^sionaJly in scientific and tech-
nological work but not as constitutic^ an ab^lute obligation to do so.
We recommend that the recipient of a National E^erve Scholarship
or Feflown^p shall agree that, upon the completion of his under-
gr^uate or graduate training, he sh^ be enrolled in the National
Science E^rve and be liable to call into the service of the F^®rai
Government, in connection with scientific or technical work in time
of war or of a national emergency declared by Congress or proclaimed
by the President — the conditions of employment and the smary to be
determined at that time by the Pr^ident.

This call would be at the option of the Federal Government, It is
contemplated that, in cases where men had not for years been engaged
in scientific or technical activities, the Government probably w'ould not
exercise the right of call.

In addition to the binding obligation to serve the Government {if
called) full-time in case of war or a national emergency, the members
of the reserve should pledge themselves to render distance to the
Government in time of peace, through service on advisory committees
and on a consulting basis insofar as they are able to do so without gitm
interference with their professional work or the rendering of effective
service to their employers.

We believe that the proposed National Science Reserve would be of
real service to the N ation. Evidence printed to the Committee shows
that, if such a science reserve had been in existence in 1940 and had
included the best scientists, the mobilization of scientific and technical
men to assist the Army and the Navy (directly and through C^RD),
before Pearl Harbor, would have been more rapid and effective thMi it
was possible to make it. We believe that the obligation undertaken
by the recipients of National Science R^rve scholarships and fellow-
ships would constitute a real quid fro quo and that the Federal Govern-
ment would be well advised to invest the money mvolved even if
benefits to the Nation were thought of solely — ^which they are not- in
terms of national preparedness.

The exact extent and duration of the obligation to serve, a^umed
by members of the National Science Reserve, of course, would he for
the wisdom of Congress to determine in relation to the needs of the
Nation and to the obligations of graduates of the Military and Navdl
Academies, of members of the Aimy and Naval Reserves and indwd
of all citizens in time of war or other national emergency. ^

It is agreed by the Committee in respect to the administration of
the National Science Reserve scholarships that whde the plan must be
national in character, the principle of local administration must he
recognized. The American scene which looks rather unMorm from
any one place has infinite variety and intense individuality at dose
ra33ge. This must be recognized.

Our plan for the selection of National Science Reserve Smolam
is set forth tentatively m Appendix C attached hereto. In brief it
is this:

145

The 6,000 proposed scholarships should be assigned to the States ^
on the basis of the number of their secondary school graduates of the
previous year as related to the national total of such graduates.

On the basis of the 1939-40 figures, State quotas of scholars would
be as steted in the following table:

_ , Secondary school State quotas:

State graduates 3 scholarships

A

80

3, 498

17

-

12, 226

60

__

72, 301

356

-

11, 900

59

- -

17, 614

87

2, 353
5, 278

12

nfsttricft of Coliiijnfoiflr _ , .

26

Wloriria _ _

12, 666

62

.. -

18, 302

90

Idaho

6, 815

34

TlllTlofR -

75, 508

372

TnrimnA ,

37, 470

184

Iowa

30,671
23, 326

151

’K’finiKfl.R _

115

K'^»T»+iicky

17, 675

87

Hiouisiana

17, 405

86

MAinA __

8, 485

42

Marylft/nd _ _

13, 016

64

M as®ac^iisetts

46, 830

231

Michigan

44, 522
30, 337
13, 979
33, 343
6>617
17, 970

S 1, 005

219

Minnejfiota

. 149

Missfesippi

69

Missouri

164

Montana- - ■

33

Nebraska

88

Nevada

5

New TTampahire

4, 670
39, 973

23

New J<^rsey

197

New Mexico -

3, 745

18

New York

117, 901
30, 372

580

North CaroHna

150

North Dakota

7, 182
73, 616
23, 467
13, 002
99, 351

5,978
12, 687

8, 059

35

Ohio

362

Oklahoma

116

Oregon

64

Pennsylvania

489

29

Rhode Island •

South Carolina

62

Soufe Dakota

40

Tenne^ee

17, 857
56, 348
8,212
3, 130

88

Texas

277

Utah-

40

Vermont _

15

100

Virgmia

20, 263

Washington

21, 170

104

87

165

16

W^ Vn^inia .

47,571

33,464

3, 213

Wisconsin

Wyoming

Totals

1,218,545

5, 999

* It IS intended that the proposed scholarships shall be available also to secondary school graduates in th®
TemtoriK and Insular Possessions but we have not statistics relating to them comparable to those for the
Stat« and for the District of Columbia given on this page. Allocation of scholarships to the Territories
and Izus^ir PossessHMs^ of course, would decrease the State quotas.

h^h school gts^tuates 1^9-40 plus of the private and parochial secondary sdbool enroHment.
Statistics of State School Syst^ns, 1939HtO. 1941-42, Biennial Survey of Education, XJ. S. Oflice of EducatioB-

It is recommended that, for the National Science Reserve Scholars,
the administrative organization, the bases of selection and the pro-
cedures be as follows in brief:

Proposals for a ‘^National Scientific Research Foundp-tion’^ are
under discussion by your Committees and amon^ the proposed powers
of such a foundation is power to contract with other agenci^ for the
performance of functions within the scope of the foundation. It would
be our recommendation that the foundation, or any similar organiza-
tion which may be established, should make arrangemente for choosing
SchoIfflB and FellowB under the pro|^sed plan through the Nation^
Ai^dbny of Science, if that or^oiization be willing to accept the
respoMibility. The operation of the plan, we recommend, should be
etttosted to the Academy's operating agency, the National Research
Council. More precise details of the National Academy's participa-
tion and the ineans by which it is suggested that operations be carried
on are stated in Appendix C.

To ensure the fairest, most effective and most up-to-date methods
of selection, advisory bodies expert in such matters must be set up.
No existing national science organization has shown itself to be as
well-equipped for such advisory functions — working both with non-
members of the academy and with members — as the National Academy
has shown itself to be through the years. A central administrative
staff, chosen for ability and integrity, also must be set up.

As outlined in Appendix C,5committees of selection would be set
up in each State. These committees, it is su^ested, should consist of
five members, to wit: three scientists, one of whom should serve as
chairman; one member of a college or university faculty, trained and
experienced iu the field of selection and guidance; and one repr^ent-
ative of secondary education within the State, usuaEy a se<x>ndary
school principal or a high school supervisor in the State department
of education. At least one of the scientists, it is sxiggested, should
be from agriculture or from industry within the State.

The admmistrative staff of the national over-all oa^animtion, in
cooperation with the advisory bodi^, would prepare tests in accord-
ance with the best thought upon such matters. These tests would be
given to all applicants throughout the country and the t^t reporte
would be sent to the national organization for evaluation. The
national staff also would collect other relevant data and judmaits
concerning each applicant and npon the basis of the tests and otb^
material would certify to the State Committees a number of qudi-
fied candidates equal to twice the State's quota — it being provided,
however, that no applicants shall be certified who do not attain a
certain minimum national standard. The dossiers of th^ c^di-
dates would be sent to the State committees and those committ^
would have the responsibility of making the final selections of the
Sdiolars up to the number of the State's quota.

The machinery and procedure for administering these s<diolar^ps
are outlined only in general terms at this time. It is die« that valid
methods for selecting students of high ability are availaMe m the
experience of persons and organizations which have been working on
this problem for many years. Doubtless better methods win be
available in future and the methods adopted for the National Science
Reserve scholarships should be the best available at the time tiiey are
being used.

141

OoBceming BoacMneiry for administratioii of the National Science
Reserve FellowsMps, we be brief:

They should be administered nationally as the National Research
Ckjnnml Fellowships are administered.. Whether or not a “National
Scientific R^arch Foundation'^ or similar body be ^tablished, we
judge that the National Research Council of the National Academy
of odenc^ would be the best agency to administer the proposed
National Science Reserve Fellowships; for the National Rese^ch
Council has shown that it has the know-how and integrity to adminis-
ter weE a Fellowship program on a national basis. It should be
noted that we propose that the fdlowships (as distinct from the
scholarships) diould be awarded on a national, not a State, basis.

For the National Scientific Reserve Fellowships as for the scholar-
dhij®, the sole basis of selection should be merit, without regard to
sex, race, color, creed, or need.

It is recommended that fellowship (as distinct from scholarship)
stipends should be fixed by the awarding agency on a scale up to $100
monthly, plus payments for tuition and other fees up to a maximum
of $500 annually.

Throughout the whole plan, for both scholarships and fellowships,
there should run an insistence upon high-grade work by the holder,
otherwise the fellowship or scholarship shall be terminated by the
awarding agency.

Scholarships shall be tenable for 4 academic years or the equivalent.
Fellowships shall he tenable for the duration of graduate studies lead-
ing to the doctoral degree, up to a maximum of 3 academic years or
the equivalent. Both shsil be held upon the following conditions:

(a) Continuance of good health.

(&) Continuance of good behavior.

(c) Scientific progr^ at the level of the best 25 percent of former
students in the scientific departments primarily concerned.

If a Scholar or Fellow drops out for failure or other reasons, his
scholarship or fellowship should lapse. Alternates should not he
appointed.

The scholarships and fellowships should be valid for any college or
university, within the territory of the United States, of the holder's
(ioice, subject to the advice and consent of tJie awarding agency
concerning rdevant facilities for scientific work. With the consent
of ihe awarding agency, a Scholar or Fdlow may change the location
of Ms work to another college, university or technical school which is
judged to be better suited to his scientific ctevelopment.

National ^ence Reserve Scholars should be eligible to appoint-
ment as National Science Reserve Fellows, but appointments to the
fdlowdhips should not be restricted to the Nation^ Science Reserve
Schcdars. The fellowships should be open to competition from Ml
pre-doctoral science students.

It is recommended that the award of the scholarsMps and of the
fdlowships be commenced simultaneously, or approximately so, to the
full annual number in each category.

The Cbnamittee recommenck that the National Agency in charge of
the ^darsMps and f^owships should carry on continumg research
into methods of selection and continuing study of unfolding oppor-
tunities (and tl^everse) for employment in science and tSnMogy.
Among ^ective means for the discovery and development of scim-

tific talent in American youth are means for developing public interest
in science. It will not be sufficient, if science is to remain healthy in
root and branch, merely to develop a large number of scientists and to
provide them with the financial support necessary for their investiga-
tions. There is also the necessity of creating a better xmderstandu^
of the role and place of science in our national life, so that public
approval and support for the future development of science be
forthcoming.

II. PLANS FOR THE NEAR FUTURE

The preceding sections of this report propose plans for the discovery
and devdopment of scientific talent in American youth as a long-term
proposition. There is, however, an immediate and pressing problem
which is a result of the war.

1. Defidfs of Sdentific and Technological Personnel Resulting
From War and Selective Service Policies

The training of men in the fields of science and technology during
the war has almost completely stopped. With the exception of some
24(>0 men on the reserved list who have been taken from their studies
for civilian war research, all physically fit graduate students have been
taken into the armed forces. College students majoring in the sciences
have also been taken into the armed forces. Those ready for college
training in the sciences have not been permitted to enter. Because of
these curtailmente, it will require at least 6 years after the war ends
before scientists trained for research will emerge from the graduate
sdhioofa in any significant quantity. Consequently there is an accu*
mulating deficit in the number of trained research scientists. That
deficit continue for a number of years.

The deficits in science and technology students who, but for the
war, would have been granted bachelor^s degrees in these fields are
probably already about 150,01)0.

The deficits, in science and technology, of doctoral degrees — that is,
of young scholars trained to the point where they are capable of
carrying on origiml work — ^have been calculated by the imerican
Institute of Physics, as follows:

Deficit ac-
cumulated !
1941 through j
1944

Estimate :
deficit 1946

Total 1941
through 1945

Probable defi-
cits 1946
through 1955

Total prob-
able deficit
due to war
1941 through
1955

Chbmibtey

240

650

790

ENOIHBBaiNG

148

82

230

960

Gboloot -

63

50

113

317

430

Mathematics

161

100

261

939

1, 200

Physics

251

160

411

1, 589

2,000

PSYCHOLOCY-«

Biological Sci-

96

84

180

550

730

ences

665

725

1, 390

4, 910

6, 300

Totals

1,624

! 1, 751

3,375

13, 495

16, 870

All patriotic citizens, who are weU-informed on these matters,
agree that, for military security, good public health, full employment

150

and a higher standard of living after the war, these deficits are veiy
serious.

In a recent radio address Dr. Arthur H. Compton, Professor of
Physics in the University of Chicago and Nobel Prize winner, said:

It takes at least 6 years for a capable 18-year~old to train himself for effective
scientific research. Even if we should start now to r^ume such training, it will
thus be at least 6 years before a normal supply of young profe^ionals will again
be available, to our laboratories. Can we afford to wait any longer?

Admiral J. A. Purer, Coordinator of Research and Development,
United States Navy Department, has said:

I want to mention the great personal interest that the Secretary of War, Mr.
Stimson, and the Secretary of the Navy, Mr. Forrestal, are taking in pc^twar
military research. There is a growing belief that important as it may be to
maintain after the war ground forces, air forces, and sea forces of a size commen-
surate with our national responsibilities, it may be even more important to keep
the weapons and the material in general which we supply to these forces in step
with the advances of science. Stocking our arsenals with the weapons of this war
is no guarantee that we can win the next war with them. In fact, that may be
the quickest way of losing the next war. It would be wiser to maintain arsenals
of only modest size whether we are.speaking of ships or guns or aircraft and to use
the money saved thereby to continually replace the old thin^ with the new
creations of the research laboratory and of American inventive genius. Our
industry should be kept alert to begin quickly the production of the va^ quantiti^
of materials needed when war threatens; and this readiness should concern it^If
especially with the new things. We hope for your aid in supporting this pcwsition
among those who are engaged in research.

Dr. Charles L. Parsons, Secretary of the American Chemical
Society, wrote President Roosevelt:

American technology has given birth to the greatest ^wer of all time. Today,
we are drying up prosperity at its source. Public opinion of the future will view
with amazement the waste of scientists in World War n * ♦ * Our children

and our grandchildren will not forgive the loss of an entire generation of scientists.

Dr. Charles Allen Thomas, director of the Monsanto Chemical
Company’s research laboratories, declared:

Scientific suicide faces America unless immediate and adequate steps are taken
to train replacements for technical men going into the armed services.

Statements of this type are fairly representative of the thinking of
informed men in the armed services and in civilian life.

The situation, in brief, is that since the passage of the Selective
Service Act in the autumn of 1940, there have been practically no
students over 18, outside of students of medicine and engin^ring in
Army and Navy programs, and a few 4-F’s, who have followed bjx
integrated scientific program in the United States. Neither our allim
nor, so far as is known, our enemies have permitted any such condition
to develop; but on the contrary have maintatned or increased national

f)rograms for the training of scientists and technologists. It tak« at
east 6 years for a capable 18-year-old person to train hims^ for
effective scientific research. Having regard to this long period of
training and on the basis of prewar figures showing botih. the number
of students of physical science in graduate schoms and of doctoral
degrees then conferred, the accumulating deficit of scientists has bron
calculated, with the results already presented. ^ That these defidts
are a serious matter for the welfare of the Nation be the condirion
peace or war, is agreed. What are the feasible remedies?

Proposals to change the policy of draft hoards to the end tiiat stu-
dents of science and technology shall not be drafted are too late. The

151

damage has been done: these students already are in the Army and
Na¥y, cut off from integrated scientific and technological training.
Proposals for their early discharge from the Army and Navy are not
feasible. The Army has made its plans for the discharge of personnel
as soon as feasible in accordance with a rating scale conceded to be
fair and res^nable from the standpoint of the individual GI — ^how-
ever it may disregard the risk to the Nation's scientific strength.
Plans for the discovery and development of scientific talent in Ameri-
can youth who are in the Army and Navy must, to be practicable and
reasonable, take account of the existing situation and of plans for de-
mobilization already adopted.

Our pit>pc«als, in the situation as we find it, are these:

2, Plans for Integrated Scientific Training for Soldiers and
Sailors

«

There should be prepared now lists of promising students of science
and technology — students who before and after theii; entry into the
armed services have shown high ability in these fields. Arrange-
ments should be made now with the Army and the Navy whereby,
now that it is militarily feasible, these talented students should
be ordered to duty in the United States for fully independent, in-
t^ated scientific study of a grade available to civilians in peace
tim^. This should be adopted as the considered policy of the armed
semces and no desire of a commanding ofl&cer to retain a potential
scientist for his usefulness on the spot should be allowed to interfere
wili the operation of the policy.

It is recommended that this plan be carried out, not in terms of a
stated number of young scientists, but rather that, now, centers of
^nce and technology in the United States should be combed for
Mormation concermng those students who, prior to the war, had
given evidence of high talent for science and technology; and that, as
soon as militarily po^ble, tibese students by name, should he ordered
to duty as students. Probably no more than 100,000 of the 10,000,000
men in the Army and Navy would be involved and now, following
VE-day, that number could not be militarily significant. Likewise,
we recommend that the armed services como their records for men
who, during the war, have given evidence of high talent for science
and technology, and that they also be included in this plan.

It © r^mmended that the plan be not restricted to students at
any particular level of studies, but rather that science students who
have shown their abiliti^ at all levels of studies, from collie fresh-
man to post-doctoral students, he included. It is also specificaUj
rm^ommended'that former teachers of science in the armed forces be
included in this plan.

The madiinery for the discovery of the students finder this plan
we VOTture to surest, could best be set up within the Kesearch
Board for National Security. •

Umte to proposed plan, be it noted, there would be no disruption
of pl» toeady made for the discharge of soldiers from the Army:
wMe studente, fiieir discharges would occur ip. accordance with the
already ^tabhahed rating scale. It would not do to propose that
sum a plan wuld be done on a volunteer basis — that is, that person-
ad of Mie Army and Navy should request orders to duty as students.

It would not do because many of the best of them probably would
elect to lemam in the armed services, inspired by feelings that they
would not wish to be put in the position of seeming to shirk their
full patriotic duty.

Our recoi^endation is emphasized in the cases of men whose
scientific training was well started before their induction, the more so
the further that training had advanced. It is important to remember
that the induction of many students in the critical science and tech-
nole^cal fields w^s delayea and that imder actual demobilizing plans
they will consequently be among the last to return to civil hfe. A
way must be found to insure the quick resumption of their training,
composir^, as they do, the recognized ^ ^premium crop^' of science and
technology.

The futee of our country in peace and war depends on that pre-
mium crop.

3. The Importance of Quality of Instruction in ^^Army
Universities” Abroad

The Army has made plans for settii^ up in foreign countries, when
and where the military situation permits, courses of study for soldiers,
including course in science and technology. These plans are all to
the good. The further important thing to ensure is that the course
shall be the best and most up-to-date that can be given, and shall
include adequate laboratory work. You stated the issue in your
letter of November 19, 1944, to General Frederick B. Osborn:

There have been in this country, by reason of war research, advances wMch will
gradually permeate our entire industrial, scientific, and technicjal stractinre. Are
the metallurgists now in the Army to return and find that they have studied
alloys that are out-of-date? Are mechanical engineers to find that advanced
thinking on gas turbines has outpaced those who have been at the front, and the
new knowledge has not been extended to them? Are the large number of medical
men in the field to have no direct contact until they return with those who have
made more advance in medical research in the last few years than usually occurs in
a decade? ^

It must be ensured that these questions can be answered in the
negative. The Armed Forces Institute must be prepared with instruc-
tion that is wholly up-to-date in its higher levels; but the fact of the
matter remains that since the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
the California Institute of Technology, the Kyerson Laboratory of the
University of Chicago, and others, cannot be moved abroad, me plan
for Army universities must he supplemented by what we have sug-
gested in our first proposal above.

The Committee emphasizes that for men of scientific promise and
ability there is special need that the Armed Forces Institute have ite
instruction modem, up-to-date, and of the best effectivenm. It m
clear that there is a vast opportunity in this program for streng&ening
the technical work of the country by integrating the training given to
soldiers possessing technical proficiencies with problems of modem
industry and tecmiology, especially for men who do not plan to go on
to advanced scientific training. So far as possible, the universitim and
technical schools of the country doubtless would stand ready to
operate with the Armed Forces Institute along iiiese lines, if requited
by the Army, by sending overseas instructors in technical and scim-

153

tific subjects— instructors, who, fresh from war research, wo^d be
up-to-date. Technical branches of business and mdustry might well

do the same.

4. The Place of the G1 Bill of Rishts in Ameliorating
Scientific and Technological Deficits

Public Law 346, Seventy-eighth Congress, conunonly known as the
GI Bil of Eights, provides for the education of veterans of this war un-
der certain conditions, at the expense of the Federal Government.
Among the returning soldiers and sailors will be many with marked
scientific talent whicE. should be developed through fmther education,
for the national good. However, the 1 year of education which the law
provides for essentially aU veterans clearly will not be enough to
train a scientist nor in most instances to complete training begun
prior to entry into the armed forces. The law makes the amount
of education beyond 1 year at Government expense depend on length
of service rather than on ability to profit from the education. It
would seem to us that our mandate to set up an effective plan for
discovering and developing scientific talent must take into account
the scientific potentialities among the 10,000,000 young Americans
now in the armed forces. Accordingly, it is recommended that:

(a) a special advisory committee of scientists be appointed to assist
the administrators of the law to discover and direct the counseling of
those veterans who have marked scientific talent ;

(b) an adequate advising and counseliDg service be established in
each State or region; and

(c) a complete scientific education at Government expense be pro-
vided for a group selected on the basis of the educational record of the
first year (assured to all veterans) and such other tests as may be
nec^sary — the lei^th of this education to be determined, on the
merits of each case, by the special advisory committee.

Under the suggested plans interested veterans while studying
science for the first year, during which as veterans they are entitled
to support from the Federal Government, would submit their records
and t^e certain tests. Outstanding men and women of scientific
talent would be selected — ^and wre recommend a selective process as
rigoibus as that provided under our main plan— and be provided wdtii
funds at the rate prevailing in the GI Bffl of Eights for completion
of college courses in science, and also for graduate trainmg to those
possessing very high abilities.

We are informed that to some extent the proposals herein outlined
could be put into effect under the present law by administrative
action, and we venture to recommend such action to the extent allow-
able. We believe, however, that it would be advisable, in addition,
to have new l^islation authoriziog the admhmtrators of the law to
a^ect, as an mtimate, possibly 5,000 veterans of each age group (i. e.,
tiiose bom in a given calendar year) for scientific education at the
expense of the Federal Government (at the rate specified in present
laws) irrespective of the length of their military service and up to a
total of 6 yew. Here, we think it sounder to recoKunend that
standards of scimtific and technolc^cal ability be the Ihnitii^ factors,
rather to recommend that definite numbers of veterans bes^acted
for training. In dealing with the veterans, for whom we think the

best possible training should be offered, the only sound way for the
adimnistrators of the law to proceed is qualitatively, on the basis of
assisting those who can maintain the highest standarck, rather than
on the basis of any quantitative ^timates or fixed quotas.

It is not nec^a^ to stress further that the proper handling of the
reservoir of scientific talent now in the armed forces is of me first
importance from the point of view of continuity in future supply of
scientists. Not all of the scientific talent in the age groups here con-
ader^ (those bom in the years 1921 to 1928, roi^hly) is to be found
in the anned forces, because some of the trained scientists among them
have been kept at civilian tasks of utmost uigency for the war effort.
However, such assignment to civilim status through ^active S^wice
mechanism has been far from effective in the past year or two, and for
those born later than 1924 (now 21 years of age or less), practically no
exemptions from military service (except by reason of physical dis-
ability) have been allowed. Each year that the 18-year olds are called
up for service in the armed forc^ a large portion of the potential
scientific talent of that age group is cut off from adequate training-
Among these younger men are those who will be the most promising
candidates for further scientific ^ucation when demobilized; yet,
because, xmder the provisions of the pr^ent law, the length of educa-
tion depends on length of service, it wfil be those young m^ who can
have the least Government assistance. Amendment of the law to
rectify this situation, at least insofar as future scientists are con-
cerned, ^ems to us essential for the safety and continued prosperity of
the Nation.

The relation of the proposed extentions of the provisioiis of the GI
Bill of Eights to the long-term plan envisaged earlier in this report for
the National Science Eeserve is obvious. Those educated in science
under the veterans^ law for a period prolonged beyond the period to
which as veterans they would be entitled shoidd likewise be members
of the National Science E^erve. The relation of the proposed ex-
tensions to our proposals for ord^iog members of the armed forc^ to
duty as students likewise is obvious. That group would remain in
the armed services only as long as, under actual plans for demobilizar
tion, they are required to remain. Thereafter, they would take up
the educational benefits to which they wijl be entitled under the GI
Bill of Eights, and under, we trust, our proposed extaosons of benefits
to the specially talented among them.

5. Duties of Schools/ Colleges, Universities and Technkxil
Schools to Returning Veto^ans

However, this is a problem not only for the Feieral GoverammI
to solve, but also is one req^uiring that the States and flie college,
universities, and technical sdiools take leadership. We say epiptoti-
caUy to the colleges, and universities and tedirdcal schoofe that it is
up td them to be extiemely flexible and broad-minded in handling Ihe
returning veteran, IJniess they are willing and able to devise ways
and means of developing in sdient^ those able veterans who do not
meet the usual found requirem^ts, 4hey wffl lose some of Ihe b^t
talent in the country. In particular, they must devise mMns of
building on the basis jof the very partid but hi^y dotted tedknjcd
training that many of these men have received in service. Some of

155

fJhift large group of men, perhaps millions, who haTe learned about
machines and electrical equipment can be further developed, for the
weE^beir^ of the country, through special institutions or vocational
schools. Moreover, from this group can be cuEed first-rate scientific
Ment, provided that the universiti^ and technical schools do what
they ought to do. The rigidity of academic institutions must not be
permitted to drive away from training talented veterans.

We recognize a dilemma here: the scientific professions, including
medicine and indeed aE the learned professions as weE, nowadays
require, because of the complexities and vast extent of modern knowl-
edge, both breadth and intensity in preparation. On the other hand,
the generation with which we are concerned has already lost up to 5
years of educational time, and if the most ambitious among them are
not to be repelled, ways must be found to shorten the period required
for them to complete their formal education. It is a condition, not
a theory, that confronts us and our judgment is that the Nation wiE
lose much if our educational institutions do not recognize that many
veterans wUl feel the need for making up lost time, and help them
make it up. Otherwise, we are sure, a significant quantity of them
wiE be lost to higher education.

Further, there is the problem of veterans needing to complete their
secondary school training. Many of them, interested in completing
their interrupted high school programs, wiE be deterred from doing so
because, by reason of their greater age and maturity, they wiE be
r^iuctant to go back to regular school classes with adolescents, to sub-
mit to the usual high school routines and requirements, and otherwise
to Eve and associate with such youngsters. This situation must be
met- A similar problem confronts many youths employed in war
industries

Provision for these over-age^' high school students is very necessary
in postwar educational programs, especiaEy for those who are not
primarily concerned with vocational training, which apparently wEl
be amply provided under present and proposed programs. Speci^pro-
visions, such as those stated by the Regents of the State of New York,
must be put into effect to m^e it attractive for able and promising
youth to complete high school and thereby become eligible for coEege
under one or more of the scholarship plans that wiE be avaEable for
talented hi^ school graduate. Otherwise they wEl be lost to science
and to higher education, generally-

Id considering plans and programs for discovering and developing
scientific talent in American youth, the needs of th^ particular groups
must not be overlooked since they wiE include some of the potential
leaders of the future, especially among the veWans who wiE have had
war experience that has helped them to mature and develop. They
must not be penalized for &eir priceless advantage, not now recogT
nfeed in our regular educational arrangements. ^

The '‘R^entB^ Plan Tor Postwar Education in the State of New
York” makes the foflowing statement on this subject:

*1^ Baea and women demobilliied from tlie armed forces, together with workers
of like rdeas^ from war industries, will include many thousands of persons
whose educational career was interrupted below hi^ school graduation. The
military personnel will probably be granted scholarsh^s large enough to take care
of personal expenses. If a flexible program at the secondary level, with

appi^riate allowances for military experience and for work in the Armed Fore^
many of these veterans wmild fit into classroom, labcnratofy, and shop

instruction. Others will be older and perhaps averse to receiving regular instruc-
tion in company with young pupils.

^ School authorities should make an inventory of all building, staff, and cur-
riculum facilities, for the purpose of developing special opportunities for returning
veterans and workers. In large cities it may be helpful to set aside a school
building to house a special War Service School devoted to high school work for
young persons returning from the military service and the war industries. The
courses could be accelerated and the calendar fully utilized in order to permit a
saving of time. These schools, like others, would grant credit for work completed
in the Armed Forces Institute. In smaller cities War Service Schools at the
secondary level could be established on a regional basis.

We commend the Eegents^ plan to educators throughout the Nation,
oommend also the plan whereby men and women in the armed
forces may complete academic requirements, while in the armed
forces, for graduation from secondary schools. Such educational
achievement is possible through work in the service schools, the off-
duty education^ program, and the educational opportunities of the
United States Armed Forces Institute. For men and women who lack
a substantial proportion of the requirements for high school gradua-
tion, the i^my^s General Educational Development Tests are helpful
in determining the grade level at which service personnel should
properly resume their civilian education. The machmery to this end
is complete and the procedure is as follows: A complete educational
record established while in the service, should be recorded on the
official form USAFI No. 47 and returned by the man or woman in the
armed forces to the secondary sdioql for evaluation and the award
of credit toward graduation. This will facilitate a continuance of
education in coU^e of qualified persons. Veterans of World War II
who do not file a USAFI credit application form before leaving the
service should use a certified copy of their sieparation record as evidence
of in-service training.

6. Importance of Problem of Scientific Training
of Men in Armed Forces

The adequate handling of the education of the scientific and toh-
nojogical talent now under arms will be a primary test of the ^wtive-
of the Government in meeting the whole problem to wMcii'We
have been asked to direct our attention.

The future scientific and technical leaders in the United States are
now largely in military service. Unle^ exceptional steps are taken to
recruit and train talent from the armed service at or before the dose
of the war, the future will find this country serioudy handicapped
for scientific and technological leadership. In peace or war, the
handicap might prove fatal to our standards of living and to our
way of life.

157

THE EDUCATIONAL PYRAMID; STUDIES
CONCERNING ABLE STUDENTS
LOST TO HIGHER EDUCATION

To be effective, a plan for discovering and developing scientific
talent in American youth must be built upon the country's existing
educational structure and be consonant with its current operations.
Such a plan must recognize the undoubted fact that there is not an
unlimited number of individuals of high ability and must ensure that
the relatively few with creative capacity in science will be found early
and be helped and encoimaged to go on through the years of study
required to complete professional and research training.

An over-aB picture of the child and youth population and of the
enrollments in educational institutions is necessary for an understand-
ing of the dimensions of the problem presented by the proposed plan
to discover and train yotmg persons of potentm scientific ability.
Such a picture follows:

The census of 1940 reported the following figures of population
under 20 years of age:

Total

Percent

Male

Percent

Female

Percent

Under 5 years

5 to § years

10 to 14 years

15 to 19 years

10, 540, 524

10, 684, 622

11, 745, 935

12, 333, 513

ao
a 1
a 9

9. 4

5, 353, 808
5, 418, 823
5, 952, 329
6, 180, 143

a 1
8.2
9.0
9.4

5, 186, 716
5, 265, 799
5, 793, 606
6; 153, 370

7.9

a 0
as

9.4

It will be noted that there are fewer children in the early ages than
in later childhood or in the adolescent years. These figures become
even more significant in the light of the changes which occurred be-
tween 1930 and 1940:

(a) The number of children under 5 years of age decreased, from
1930 to 1940, by some 900,000.

(i) The number of children of ages from 5 to 9 years decreased,
from 1930 to 1940, by some 1,900,000.

It is estimated that by 1950 there will be a decrease of some 2
miUion, and possibly more, in the age group 10 to 19 years. Since
the current laiger number of babies bom during the war will not
reach adolescence for another 10 years at least, there will be fewer
boys and girls reaching high school and college ages in the next 7 to
10 years.

The foUowic^ figures from the 1940 census show the ^e and school
attendance of the Nation’s 46 million hoys and girls and youth;

Age group Total number Nnml^^^ding Percent attending

5 years 2, 142, 407 385, 160 la 0

6 years 2, 064, 385 1, 420, 051 69. 1

7 to 9 years-- 6,485,830 6,119,026 94.3

10 to 13 years 9, 340, 205 8^ 915, 669 96. 5

14 years 2,405,730 2,224,670 92.5

15 years- 2,422,519 2,122,996 87.6

16 to 17 years '4, 892, 170 3, 361, 206 6a 7

18 to 19 years 5, 018, 834 1, 449, 485 2a 9

20 years 2, 367, 042 294, 962 12. 5

21 to 24 years 9, 220, 793 465, 875 5. 1

The percentage figures by age groups showing school attendance
during 1940 are:

Percent attending eeh&ol in eadk age group

Age group:

43

Age group — Continued.

5 to 6 years

16 to 17 years

68

7 to 13 years.

95

18 to 20 years

23 6

14 to 15 years.

90

21 to 24 years

,,, 5.1

It will be observed that the percentage of school attendance rises
to age 13 when boys and girls approach the end of the elementary-
school and junior high school and likewise when employment in many
States becomes legm; but that thereafter it declines. From age 17
on, the decline in attendance is rapid, to the 5.1 percent in the jmm
21 to 24 of college and university attendance.

The following figures show the educational attainmente of the
population 25 years old and over in the year 1940:

School years completed Ntuaber o# Feromt

Total 1-

73, 733, 866 lOO 0

Number school years completed.
Grade school;

1 to 4 years

5 and 6 years

7 and 8 years

High school:

1 to 3 years

4 years

College:

1 to 3 years

4 years or more

2, 799, 923

as

7, 304, 689

9ti

8, 515, 111

11.6

25, 897, 953

35. 1

11, 181, 995

15.2

10, 551, 680

14.3

4, 075, 184

5.5

3,407,331

46

Median school years completed.

a4

1 Not including persons for whom sdbool years complied were not reported.

It will be noted tihat about half of the population 25 yeais of age
and over had completed approximately 8K gr^^ but some 13.7
percent had had 1^ than a fifth-^ade educatk)n.

The foregoing figure of scho^ attendance coliectai in the 1M§
census may be compared with the enrollments by grades in the public

159

schools of the country as tabulated by the United States Ofl&ce of
Education. Again it wiE be noted that there is a marked decline after
the seventh grade and a progressive diminution through the 4 years
of high school:

Elementary school pupils.

1937-38

19, 748, 174

1941-42

18, 174, <

Kindergarten-

607, 034

625, 783

First grade

3, 317, 144

2, 930, 762

Second grade—

2, 486, 550

2, 215, 100

Third grade—.

2, 444, 381

2, 175, 245

Fourth grade—

2, 402, 617

2, 196, 732

Fifth grade

2, 342, 428

2, 252, 722

2, 166, 018

Sixth grade

2, 124, 494

Seventh grade.

2, 173, 173

1, 722, 125

2, 060, 752

Eighth grade—

1, 679, 782

Secondary school pupils.

6, 226, 934

6, 387, 805

First year

1, 979, 379~

1, 927, 040

Second year...

1, 669, 281

1, 705, 546

Third year

1, 379, 398

1, 450, 788

Fourth year. __

1, 150, 506

1, 273, 141

Post-graduate.

48, 370

31, 090

— "‘Statistics of State S<hool Systems, 1939-40 and 1941-42.^' Bien-
nial Surveys of Education, 1938-40, 1940-42. (Table III, p. 9).

In the year 1941-42 there was a decrease in high school enrollments
of about 189,000, distributed as foHows:

First year of high school 84, 000

Second year 61,000

Third year 35, OOO

Fourth year 9, 000

Recent reports indicate a l^er decrease in high school attendance
for the years 1942-43, with indications that some 160,000 lx>ys and
some 50,000 girls had left high school. Efforts to reduce the number
of students leaving high school and. to persuade others to return, have
apparently checked this decline in high school enrollments in 1944-45.

There is, as these figures indicate, a progressive reduction in the
number of students at each successively hi^er level of education.
Thus, the total student body may be compared to a pyramid with a
broad base of elementaiy pupils sloping upwards to the apex of pro-
fessional and g^uate students.

Various de^ed studies of how and when students drop out along
the educational sequence have been made which throw light upon the
size of and occasion for withdrawals, and the reasons therefor.

Starting with 1,000 pupils enrolled in the fifth grade (figures for
grades are confuang because of pupfi retardations), the foUow-
figures show the extent to which they are reduced in each succes-
ave year:

Benaentary school:

roth grade, 19S0^Si 1, 000

Sixth grade ; ^943-' ■

SeTeaOi grade ’ 872

Eighth grade 824

160

High school:

First year 770

Second year ! _ 652

Third year_>_ ^ 529

Fourth year 463

Graduates, 1938 417

College:

First year 146

Graduate, 1942 72

[Statistical SmHmary of EdmcatMm. 1939-^ (p. 39)J

Ib prewar years, of these 72 coflege graduates, only a few went on
to master's degrees and an even smaller number received doctorates.

The forgoing data reveal the gross declines measured in terms of
student enrollments. More detailed and individualked studies (cited
later) of those who drop out of high school or who fail to go on to col-
lie show that there is a sigi^cantly large proportion of students of
aSlity, of high level of intmigence, who do not go to college because
of lack of funds. In addition it is believed that there are many able,
talented, students, whose numbers are difficult to estimate accurately
because only a few sample studies have been made, who do not con-
tinue their education because schools are inadequate or inaccessible-
Among those who do enter college there is a progressive d^irease in
each succeeding coU^e year. A study conducted by the United
States Office of Education on ^^CoU^ Student Mort^ity" (Buletin
1937, No. 11) found that in 1936-37 the percentage of students
leaving each year was as follows:

JPmmt

In the freshman year_„, 33i. 8

In the sophomore year- - 16w7

In the junior year_„., 7. 7

In the senior year 3. 9

In short, of every lOO indents who entered the university in the
first year, ^me 62 withdrew or left before graduatioii- The figure 62
is, however, a gross figure since it includes 45 studente who left to
enter other institutions (e. ff,, students who left after 2 years to ^ter
professional school) or who returned later to the same or vmt to
other institutions of the same level. The reasons for withdrawing or
leaving were as follows:

PerceTitages

18.4 were dismissed for failure in work.

12.4 because of financial diflSculties,

12.2 miscellaneous reasons.

6.1 lack of interest.

3.4 sickness.

1.1 disciplinary causes.

0.8 needed at home.

0.6 death.

45.0 unknown.

Those with the lowest academic marks had the h^»fc
of withdrawals and those with the highest academic marfa hM ^
lowest percentage of withdrawals.^ But it is to be noted 12-4
percent, or about one in ei^t, wididrew b^sause of finar^al dffi-
culties, indicating tb^t economic need, pereonal^ #r of the fandiy,
was responsible for their leaTOig coll^ bdtore grmualKWL

As the forgoing material indicates, students drop out df ^hool ia
large numbers between the ages of 13 and 14 and Hkewfe© durhig tibe
high achcM>l years.' • Among^timse who' th» drc^ i«it m a

161

nificant proportion who have the capacity for further education but
who do not continue their schooling. It appears that this premature
leaving from high school (and failure to go on to college) arises from —

Failure to provide educational programs suited to different stu-
dents who therefore become bored and drop out.

Active recruitment by business and industry of promising youth
who for their own good and the national interest should be
encouraged to continue their education.

Lack of provision for assisting needy students in high school
who must take jobs to help support themselves or their families.

The responsibility for improvii^ these conditions is primarily
upon the local community and business interests and the State gov-
emmentey althoigh it must be recognized that, in some sections of
the country, resources are lacking to provide adequate high schools.

A number of recent studies have shoTO that among high school
graduates there are many who have the intelligence and ability for
collie but who do not go to collie for a variety of reasons, chiefly
economic and geographic. Excerpts from these studies are given at
the end of this section as evidence of the present failure to provide
adequately for the continued education of promising American youth.

In the light of the studies made, havirg regard to the facts of the
educational pyramid, it dearly is essential to provide for the early
schooling of more able students in order that a large enough group will
survive to become a larger quota of high-ability students at the apex
of the pyramid. No matter how capable and gifted boys and girls
may be, if they do not have opportunities to complete elementary
and high school, they cannot go on to coUege and thence to graduate
school for r^arch training. ‘

To increase this small group of exceptionally able men and women
it is nece^a^ to enlarge the number of able students who go to col-
We.^ This involve more and better high schools, with provisions for
hdping capable students m the high schools (primarily a responsi-
bility of every local community) and opportunities for more capable,
promising high school students to go to college. Any other practice
institutes an indefensible and wasteful utilization of higher educa-
tion and n^Iect of our human resources.

PoHowing are summaries of studies pertinent to our inquiry con-
cerning able students lost to higher education:

The Carnegie Foundation carried out a thorough investigation
into the relationships and mutual responsibilities of the high schools
and ooU^^ of Pennsylvania. One of the purposes of the study was
to answer the question: Who shall go to college?

The procedure of the study involved Artensive testing of high
school seniors and coflege students, study of ifecords, and study of
prc^r^ made in college. Comparisons were then made between
and non-cdflege poups and between various college groups.

The results of tMs study showed tnat the.^oup of high school
gmduat^ who went to work in<3uded many fiSy as able to obtain
high scores as any pupils who wmt dnectly to college. Penn-
sylvania colleges of arts alone took nem*ly 4,000 of the Mgh school
group tested in 1928. The collies accepted nearly 1,000 with t^st^

162

scores below the avei^e^of the^ ^ro^iip not go to college and

they failed to enroll 3,000 with better average S(X)r^ than the 4,000
they did admit. Althon^ the coEege group exhibited a test score
average superior to that of the non-coE^e group, it did not include
the many able and often brilliant high sdiool graduates who could
not pay/Uie coEege bEls.

— T%e Student and Hi$ Knowledge, by* W. S, Learned and Ben D.
Wood. Carne^e Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching;
BuEetin 29, 1938.

In Minnesota a study was made of students who graduated from
high sc1k>o1 in 1938 to see what they were doing a year later. About
22,000 young people were included in this study which showed the
following:

^^What were youth doing a year following graduation f Minnesota
high school graduates of June .1938, faE into three broad groups of
approximately equal numbers. One-third found fuE-time employ-
ment within a year foEowing graduation. Another third continu^
their training in either coUegiate or preparatory schools. The third
group was made up of graduates who secured part-time employment
only, of the unemployed, and of those graduates for whom principals
were unable to supply information,

“Of the 22,306 young people who finished high school in June 1938,
35 percent were employed fuE lime and 7 percent had secured part-
time employment in April 1939; 12 percent were imemployed; 23
percent wk^e enrolM^^^m or universities, and an additional

12 percent were recmving framing in other kinds of schools— trade
schools, commercial coEeges, schools of nurring, high schools as
postgraduates. High school principals were unable to report the
whereabouts of 11 percent.

“ Was ^wre a relaiionskif between scholaMic achiemmmd in high school
and emytt>fi^ment or further irainimg for Minnesota high school graduates f
When the relationship of scholastic succe^ in high school to the pf^t-
high school status of the graduate of June 1938 was studied, th^
three trends were found: As one ^es down the abilty scdie {1} tiie
percentage of graduates employ^ increased, (2) the percentage of
unemployed graduates alsp increased, and (3) the percentage of
g^duat^ who continued tiieir training beyond h^ school decrease.
When, however, only those graduate who presumably were in the
labor market (not continuing their; edwsation) were coimdered, h^
school success bore little relation un^lioymait.

“Many able graduate, howev^, were not aitendii^
Considerably 1^ than half of the hi^ school graduate who ranked
in the upper 30 percent of their hi^ school classes enroled in
coEege. More than 15 pwjent of mese aHe graduate who did not
continue their training were unemjdoyed. High marks in school
are doubtless desirable, but they were not the open sesame to
haEs or employment for those graduate'^ (p. 35).

For every (mgh school) graduate who rfmked in the upper l§
percent of his high school class and entered coEe^, another g^mte
who also ranked in the upper 10 percent cEd not enter cole^^

For every graduate who ranked in the upper 30 percent of Ms eims

and entered college, two^graduates who ranked in the upper 30 percent
did not enter college-

there a relationship between socioeconomic status as indi-
oated by the fathers^ occupations and the status of Minnesota young
people a year following their graduaiionf From the professional
end of the occupational scale to the unskilled labor end, (1) employ-
ment increased, (2) unemployment increased, and (3) the proportions
of graduates continuing their training decreased. From this study
of the Minn^ota high school graduate of June 1938, it would seem
that the probability of college attendees for a graduate who is the
son or da\3ghter of a father employed in a professional or managerial
group is several times greater than that for the son or daughter of a
farmer or of an unsMled laborer. Among the June 1938 graduates,
<^dren of the unemployed were themselves imemployed in greater
proportion than children of fathers at work^^ (p. 36).

Many able high school graduate were not enrolled for further
education. ‘‘It is no longer safe to assume— if it ever was — that the
most intelligent high school graduates go to college. It is of funda-
mental importance for all the people of the State to know how generally
young people who would make the best teachers, lawyers, accountants,
doctors, engineers, and statesmen are able to attend colleges and
universities. It has been assumed traditionally that the most capable
high school graduates go to college. It is suggested by this study,
however, that geography and the economic resources of the family
are perhaps as do^y rdated* to college attendance as is intellectual
fitness"' (p. 39).

— Happens to High School Graduates^* by G. Lester Ander-
son and T. J. Berning. Studies in Hi^er Education. Biennial
Report of the Committee on IMucational Research 1938-40. Uni-
versity of Minnesota, 1941.

“It is possible to investigate the availability of educational op-
portunity * * * in various parts of the country. For example,

a study of youth in Pennsylvania was conducted about a decade ago
by the State Department of Public Instruction and the American
Youth Commission. The socio-economic status and educational
history were ascertained for a group of 910 pupils with intelligence
quotients of 110 or above. It is generally assumed that pupils with
intdligence quotients above 110 are good college material. This
group of superior pupils was divided into two subgroups on the basis
of socio-economic status. Of the upper socio-economic group, 93
percent graduated from high schocJ and 57 percent attended coUege.
Of fee lower socio-economic group, 72 percent graduated from high
school and 13 percent attended college. Further study of the data
in TaMe II will show even more dearly that the group with below-
average amo-economic status had relatively le^ educational op-
poriiimty than the group with above-average socio-economic status,
alfeoiigfa Wth gmuj^ were about equal in intdlectual ability" (p. 51),
“A similar conclusion must be drawn from a study made by Helen
B. Goetsch on 1,023 able students who graduated from Milwaukee
high schools in 1937 and 1938. These students ail Had I. Q.'s of 117
or above. The income of their parents is directly related to college
attendance, m is shown in Table III. The Mgher the parents"
income, the greater is the proportion who went to college"" (p. 52).

164

nABLE [l; RELATION OF INTELLIGENCE TO EDUCATIONAL

OPPORTUNITY

^ [Record of students with intelKgence quotients of 110 or above]

Educational advance

Dropped school at eighth grade or

b&ow

Completed ninth, tenth, or eleventh
grade but did not graduate from

high school

Graduated from high school but did

not attend college

Attended college

Total-

Socio-economic Socio-economic
status above status below Total grcwip
average average

Number

Pmeat

Number

Fereem

Number

FenMti

4

ao7|

27

7. 9

31

a 4

6.2

60

26 2

105

n. 6

206

36. a

202

59.0

4C^

44 8

322

56 8

44

12 9

366

46 2

568

100. 0

342

100.0

910

106 0

“TABLE III: RELATION OF PARENTAL INCOME TO FULL-TIME
COLLEGE AHENDANCE OF SUPERIOR MILWAUKEE HIGH
SCHOOL GRADUATES

Parental income:

$8, 00Q4--—
$$, 00G^-$7,

$3, 000-$4, 009 .
$2, 000-$2, 900-
$1, 5OO-$1, 000.
$l,Oe0-$i,400-
$500- $909—
Under $500-.

Per&eM

inmUm
full time

loao
02 0
72 9
444
2a9
25t5
26.8
2a4

see wtat actually Iiappeos if we consider the 191 students who
were graduates of the Old City BQgh School OTcr a 5-year period.
This number hicludes all the white in^ school graduates except those
who attmded schools. Table IV shows what happened to

th^e people after graduation and what the social make-up of the group
fp. 59).

“TABLE IV: COLLEGE ATTENDANCE OF HIGH SCHOOL
Ca?ADUATES IN OLD CITY

Number

Pmxmtoi

to^by

Number
atteea^^ '

Percent of
msbsodsl
dta

eaUeee

Percent by
sodUt'dtes
oliaA vte
fitted
cAee

Upper

14

7

10

72

14

Upper middle

54

28

37

’ m

51

Middle

31

16

18

58

25-

Lower middle. _

43

23

7

1#

10

Lower

19

10

0

0

t

Unknown

30

16

0

0

0

Total.. 1

191

100

72

1 im

1

^‘The HometowB school has a fine building and an undifferentiated
curriculuna so that the same h%h school education is ayailable to all
the children, whether they have college ambitions or not. In Home-
town, 80 percent of the boys and girls of high school age attend high
school. Why do they go? What do they and their parents expect
from a high kshool education?

'Tirst of all, no upper-upper class family has children in high school.
The lower-uppers and upper-middles accoxmt for about the same pro-
portions of pupils as one would expect from their proportions in the
total population. The lower-middles contribute less than one would
expect and the upper-lower and lower-lower contribute more, probably
because the lower-class people have larger families and, therefore,
more prospective pupils.

''Of all high school students classified as lower-upper or upper-
middle, 88 percent will go on to college whEe only 12 percent of those
in the three bottom classes expect to go to college. Of the total high-
school pupils, 20 percent are preparing to go to college and 80 percent
were definitely not going to college^' (p. 66).

“The generalization that different curricula and types of institutions
are adapted to different statuses is illustrated by Goetsch’s study.
She found that the hierarchy of family income was reflected in a
hierarchy of courses pursued by students in higher institutions, as
shown in Table VI” (p. 72).

“TABLE VI: PARENTAL INCOME AND COLLEGE COURSES

Curriculum:

Law

Medicine and Dentistry.

Liberal Arts..

Journalism

Engineering

Teaching

Commercial

Nursing

Industrial Trades

Median

parental income
- $2, 118
.. 2, 112
- 2,068
„ 1, 907 '

. 1, 884

- 1, 570

- 1, 543

.. 1, 368

.. 1, 104

— WAo Shall Be Educated: The Challenge of Unequal Opportunities ^
by W. lioyd Warner, Robert J. Havighurst, Martin B. Loeb. Harper
& Bros., New York City, 1944.

“"Hie findings of this study, in harmony with the findings of other
studies, show that appi-oximately as many of the ablest high school
graduates are out of college as are in college.

“On the basis of the sample (of 1,754 cases), the upper quarter of
the Statens 16,000 !l^h school gi^uates would contain a minimum of
4,000 of the ablest individuals, the type of students who really do well
in collie. Borty-nine percent of 4,000 is 1,960 individuals with high
potential college ability, who for some reason or re^ons, did not enrol
in wU^e. From the point of view of the college, as weU as of the
individuals and of society, the loss in human resource indicated in
th^e data is highly significant.

“Table 8 shows that for every four able boys in the upper quarter
there were six able girls. Table 11 shows that the ratio of able boys
to able ^Is in the upper quarter enrolled in college was 6 to 4.5.
Thus, it is dear that the greatest social and personal loss of human

resources cotues in tlie ranks of able girls in tbe upper Guarter’^’
(pp* 37~38).

—''The Utilization oj Potential CoUege Ability Found in June 1940,
Graduates of ICentuchy High Schools,” by Horace Leonard Davis.
Bulletin of tbe Bureau of School Service, College of Education TJni^
versity of Kentucky. Vol. XV. No. L Sept. 1942.

Location of brightest seniors. When we determine which econonoic
group furnished the largest percentage of seniors possessing the higher
grades of intelligence we secure different r^ults. All ewnomic groups
except the highest salaried group are represented in the Mghmt one
percentile class. Table XLII shows the percentage of students belong-
each econonaic group whose mental t^t score ^ve them a rating
of A+ or A, the highest grades made on he tests, dso the percentage
making a mental rating of E — or F, the low^t grades of intelligence
possessed by om: total or standard group. Groups 2, 3 and 4, where
the income varied from $1,000 to $4,500, have the largest percentage
of seniors rated A + and groups 1 and 5 the smallest. Groups 3
and 4 are superior to group 2 in lie percentage of students rated
A-f- or A.

‘Trom a study of our distribution tables it appears that neither
group 1 nor group 5 contain studente who score above 180 points in
the t^ts. But seniors possessing this grade of ability were found in
each of the other economic groups. The brightest students belong, to
group 4, the annual income of whose parents ranged from $1,000 to
$2,000. Ei^t students belonging to the group, 6 boys and 2 girls,
made scores over 185. And 5 students in our low^t economic group
(annual income $500 to $1,000) made soor^ ranging from 175 to 180,
while there was but a sin^e student in our highest salaried group
who made a score above 175 points” (Page 213).

“PERCENT OF SUDENTS IN EACH ECONOMIC GROUP POSSESS-
ING HIGHEST OR LOWEST GRADES OF ABILITY

EeoiioiiilG groups compared

1

Salary

$4,500-

$12,000

2

Salary

$3,000-

$4,500

3

Satey

$2,OCS0-

$3,000

4

Sakry

$1,000-

$2,000

5

Salwy

um

Pm-ce^ reded:

A4" - —

1.^

3.01

2.48

2 49

a S2

A'Hh-or A

7. 56

7. 53

10 07

a 24

568

F

1.08

1. 50

.55

. 81

1.92

E- orF

5 13

a 52

4 69

503

a m

Total cases

370

199

724

1,964

i

1,089

‘Tf we count all students whose test scor« gave them a mental
rating of A+, A or B,, these various economic groups arrange
themselves . . . : Group 3 (inwme $2,000 to S3,0CM>) comes fin^;
group 2 (annual income of $3,000 to $4,500) comes second; group 4
(axmual income of $1,000 to $2,000) ranks third; wMle the hi^^t and
lowest salaried groups come last” (Page 214).

“If we compare the records made on our tests by A© »^up of
seniors representing the richest and the poorest homes, we nnd that

Wj

659445 — 45 -12

tlliere aa*e proportionally more children possessing the highest grades
of mental ability among the poorest class than among the wealthiest
class, and more individuals with high average grades of intelligence
among the wealthier than among the poorer group. The wealthiest
group ranks high on central tendency. The poorest salaried group
ranks low on central tendency and also has a larger percentage of
individuals possessing the lower grades of mental ability. But there
are individuals in this class who obtain the highest intelligence rating
made by Mgh school seniors'^ (Page 216). ^ ,

^^BrigMeit seniors not going to college. It is still more significant that
so Boany of this most superior group of high school seniors will not
attend college, while those with the most inferior grades of intelligence
are planning to attend, in ever inerting nurnbers. Twenty-five per-
cent of the brightest seniors found in the entire State said they were
not planning to attend college at all, while 65 to 70 percent of the
duil^t seniors had definitely decided to go to college, most of them
haying already selected the college they expected to attend^' (Page298).

— The InteUigence oj High School Seniors ^ by William F . Book. The
Macmillan Company, New York, 1928.

Appendix 6

DATA CONCERNING TRAINING OF PERSONNEL
FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The relatively small number of able students who graduate from
college must be shared by the various professional schools and by
the graduate schools which train for research in the natural sciences,
the social sciences, and the arts and humanities.

From compilations made by the American Association of CoU^ate
Registrars, the following figures show the distribution of undergradu-
ate degrees in 1941 among broad academic and professional fields:

SocM sciences— 17,947

Social science and allied fields of law, business administration, education,*

divinity, library training, journalism, 70, 829

Matbematios and physical sciences fi, 440

Mathematics, physical science and allied fields of engineering, mining,

chemistry, 2^CNt4

Biological sciences, % 812

Biolo^cal sciences and allied fields ci medicine, nursing, dentistry, phar-
macy, agriculture, for^try, home economies, etc 28, 490

In fields of research these fall into broad groups, as folows:

Social, science. 17,947

Natural science 16, OfiO

Natural science and technology 5^ 584

A compilaMoB of Ph. D* degrees in the 6 years before the war shows
the foiowing disMbutton among the physical, earth, bioli^cal and
medical sdences, psychology, public h^fibi, and anthropology:

SnbJwjt *

1

[ im

im

am

' im

10#

AVOTC®

Astronomy..

i

11

5

9

12

5

6

8

Chemistry.

; 470

i 482

497

426

482

527

479

.Sigineering

m

I 48

70

59

1 44

77

60

Mathematics

77

84

76

62

91

103

82

Metallurgy

11

1 16

7

7

9

II

10

Physics -

150

147

158

165

148

191

160

799

Geology

62

64

42

58

49

55

55

Meteorology

1

0

1

4

2

0

1

Mineralogy

1

5

3

5

1

4

3

Seismology

2

2

1

1

60

Paleontology

12

10

8

i

9!

13

li

11

Biochemistry

101

127

130

Agriculture

77

53

48

37

40

52

Anatomy

26

15

14

20

17

21

19

Subject

1935

1935

193S

1938

1939

1940

Average

Bacteriology and Microbi-

ology

38

41 i

46

40.

56

59

47

Botany,

110

108

88

106

108

112

105

Entomology

34

30

51

33

47

48

41

Genetics,.

10

21 1

13

31

32

26

22

Horticulture, .

24

14

21

16

11

20

18

Physiology

76 ,

83

103

66

59

70

76

Zkmlc^ ^

113

132

98 ,

102

102

112

110

621

Medicine and Suigery

14

12

1

7

9

10

9

Pharmacology

10

18

14

19

23

23

18

Psychol£3gy-I

101

118

112

108

123

120

114

Public Health

4

13

9

15

8

15

11

Anthropology

13

20

15

18

11

26

17

169

Total

1, 649

It will be noted that the physical sciences provided about 800 or
almost half of the total number of doctor's degrees in science, of
which, in turn, about one-half were in chemistry. The earth sciences
provided an additional 60 degrees.

After the physi^ sciences the largest number of degrees were in
the life sciences, with about 800 degrees distributed among the several
divisions as follows:

Medieal sciences 300

Biology — 307

Agriculture 52

Psychology 114

Anthropology 11

784

The National Koster made an inventory of graduate students in
non-professional and non-vocational schools and departments, as of
December 1942, which showed the number then enrolled in the gradu-
ate schools, divided into disciplines as follows:

Physical sciences 5 09g

Chemistry

Geology

Mathematics

Meteorology

Physics (electronic)

Physics (non-electronic)
Other physical sciences.

Biology

Social science

3, 045
182
545
918
227
680
101

Economics,-

Geography

H*tory-- -

PsyAology

Other social studies

Lajiguages. litemtiire,’ fine arts, and'mu^c
Oaer major fields

1, 034
79
812
543
1, 3 89

1, 120

3, 857

2, 157
486

13, 318

It win be noted that there were about 5,700 graduate students in
physical science and some 1,100 in biology at the time of this report.
In terms of the educational pyramid, the total number of graduate
students shown above in all branches of non-professional and non-
vocational graduate study form but a small proportion of the total
college enrollments of approximately 1,400,000 in 1939-40, More-
over, the 1,649 who received Ph. D. degrees in the sciences listed
above were about one-half of the total number of all Ph. D. degree
(about 3,300 in 1939-40).

Special studies have been made by the Institute of Physics on the
^ect of war upon the training of researiii peaEsonnd in the, graduate
schools. These indicate that there is a cumulative deficit in the num-
ber of students receiving Ph. D. d^re^, in the several ph^wcal
sciences and engineering, which will continue and grow until several
years after the war:

Probable Tota^ prob-
Aammulated Istimated Total IMl deficits, able deficit

deficit, 1§41 deficit, tbroiigb 19^ due to war,

tbroctgb IMi 1945 194S throdgb 1941 tlirough

1965 1965

Chemistry 240 550 790 4,400 5,250

Engineering 148 82 230 730 960

Geology-,- 63 50 113 317 430

Mathemafe 161 lOO 261 939 l,2l»

Physics . 251 160 411 1,589 2,000

Psychology 96 84 180 550 730

Biological sciences. 665 725 1, 390 4, 910 6, 300

: .Totals - J-. 4, 6-24 % 751 3^ 376 13, 495 16, 870

Proposys for enlarging the number of students entering^ tiie grad-
uate schools to be train^ for researcii must be ooMdered in rdalion
to lie profoaMo for toiaed research workers as expressed in

yrldlktle fihiv Urns, necessary as it is to enlai^ lie numbar <rf
graduate students in orde* to produce the relatively few r^o^li
students of exceptional ability, me danger of m oyer supply of tramed
research personndl mmt be kept mnstMtly in mind. The unhappy
plight of scholars in Europe after the last wm* when there wm a sur-
plus diould not be forgotten.

likewise proposate for recruiting more eoB^e studenfe into the
physicy and biol<gicy sciences mad enlisting more graduate students
in rmearch in the phy^cy and biolcgicy sciences should
be viewedm the light of the ovar-all needs of the coimtry and of the
requirements in other fields of rese^ch and in the several profe^ions.
If too many of the limited nuanb^ of high guality studoite are
absorbed by fields of scientific research, res^rch m the s^M Bcim^
and in the arts and humanities may be jeopardized with probably
unfavorable reactions upon scientific research.

171

Appendix C

SUGGESTED ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION,
BASES OF SELECTION, SCHEDULE
AND PROCEDURES

I. Administrative Organization.

Proposals for a National Scientific Research Foundation are under
discussion, such a foundation to be chained with responsibility for the
administration of the several national scientific programs being
recommended by the committees advising Dr. Bu^, Among the
suggested powers of such a foundation is power to make contracts with
other agencies for the performance of functions within the scope of the
foundation. It would be our recommendation that the foundation, or
any similar f^ency which may be established, should make arrange-
ments for choosing Scholars and Fellows under the proposed^ plans
through the National Academy of Sciences, if that organization be
willing to accept the responsibility. The National Academy, as a
representative body of the scientists of the country, would be the
logical organization to sponsor this program; and association with
the National Academy would give the program respect and prestige.

It is further recommended that:

(а) The President of the National Academy of Sciences, with the
advice and consent of the Administrative Committee of the National
Research Council, periodically should appoint a National Science
Reserve Advisory Committ^ which would advise him regarding
methods of selection and the arrangements for the entire program
within the provisions of the le^lation.

(б) Tfie President of the National Academy of Sciences with the
advice of the advisory committee should appoint a Director of the
National Science R^erve Program, who would devote his full time
to the work. Subject to the general supervision of the administrative
committee of the National Research Coundl, the Director would
establMi a national office, select the administrative and research staff,
develop detailed plans and administer the program. The Director
would appoint a technical advisory committee, or committees, for the
development of tests of scientific promise, of the inventory of activities
and interests and of the recommendation blank and rating scale.

(c) The President of the National Academy of Sciences with the
advice of the advisory committee would appoint State committees of
selection, to consist of five members, to wit: three scientists, one of
whom should serve as chairman; one member of a college or university
faculty, trained and experienced in the field of selection and guidance;
and one representative of secondary education, usually a school

172

principal or one of the high school supervisors in the State department
of education. At least one of the scientists, it is suggested, should be
from agriculture, or from indnstiy, within the State. The State
committees of selection, under our plan, would have the responsibility
of making the final appointments to the limit of the State quotas.
These committees would make their selections on the basis of the
dossiers of the candidates which would be supplied to them by the
national office, plus such other material as the State committees
may decide to gather and use. The national office, on the basis of
the tests of scientific promise and the appli<mnts^ school records,
would select twice the State’s quota and report the names records
of such candidates to the Stale committees. The State oontmittees
would make the final selections from among th^e candidates. No
candidates who do not attain a certain miuTTmiTO national standard
should be certified to the State committees.

In the selection of the general advisory committee, and also in
choosing the membership of the technical committee or committees,
the persons and organizations that have bad the greatest experience
in constructing, administering and mterpreting the particular Mnd of
measuring instruments to be used in this program should be consulted.
Such organizatioBs include the ymmittee on Measurement and
Guidance of the American Council on Education, the Cooperative
Test Service, the College Entrance Examination Board, the Graduate
Record Examination Office of fee Oame^e Foimdation, fee Measure-
ment and Guidance Project in &igmeering Education, the Examina-
tion Stj^ of fee Armed Forces Institute, and fee University of Iowa
Examination project. Directors, and in some instances, ofeer
staff members of these agencies are among feo^ who have had fee
greatest amount of experience in prepariig measuring instruments of
the t3rpe necessary. To make certain feat fee s^ecSon instruments
are as adequaie as feey mA be made, it will be essential to draw upon
fee combmM exp#fien and technical knowledge and Judgin»t of
these persons and agenci^. The whole job must be done at fee highest
possible levd of professional oompetence.

fl. Bases of Selection^

It is proposed that fe^e be four principal source of information

judgment upon which final selection of fee Scholars should be
but feat only fee first two of these be used in fee prelunin«y
/sc^nmg:

(1) Score on test of scientific promise.

(2) School record, especially rank-in-dass.

(3) Candidate’s application induding an inventory of activities

and interests.

(4) Recommendation of principals and teachers regarding candi

date’s ability and personal quahties.

It is strongly recommended that feese tests and examinatioiis be
undertaken on an experimental basis and be continually revised and
improved in the light of actual experience and of the performance of

1 This section applies specially to the dBwvery of talented ywte who aw attaedfag high The

committee, as indicated in the body of its report, recognaes that there is also the problem €i todmg,^d
giving opportunity to, talented youth who arc outside high schools and that, Sm them, vaxmtKsns from
standard procedures will be required.

171

sttideate selected. The first few years of the program especially
should be considered experimental so that new and promising methods
can be tried out, particularly for the discovery of lie candidates’
interests and personality characteristics, including evidence of some
concern for social understanding and responsibility.

For the present, and subject to cha^e in the light of experience
and research upon lie validity of indices of prediction, it is recom-
mended that:

The t^t score and rank-in-class in school should be combined into
one index of academic promise which should be used as the basis of
screening. For each State a critical score on the index should be set
at a point which would yield twice the State quota, provided that
the State critical score were above the national minimum score.

For Ihe candidate above the state critical score, additional informa-
tion should be collected so that in the final selection it will he possible to
taka into account certain important qualities such as originality, crea-
tive ability, motivation, emotional stability, and quahties of leadership.

For the convenience of the State committees of selection, a summary
sheet would be prepared giving the essential data from the four sources
of information indicated above and this summary sheet would be
attached to the front of each candidate’s dossier when it is sent to the
State committee.

The State committees should be provided with directions to assist
them in interpreting the various items of information about each
candidate. The State committees^ however, should be entirely free to
use and evaluate the information in accordance with their best judg-
ments and should be encouraged to collect additional information,
such as interview reports, concerning the applicants, to provide the
broadest possible bases for the process of sdeckon.

1 . Test of Scientific Promise

(a) LcTigtii. — The test should be of sufficient length for efficient
selection, perhaps of 5 or 6 hours duration. It should not be a speed
test.

(b) Type of questions. — The test should be of the objective or con-
troUed-answer type. The unreliability of free answer questions as
well as the limitation m sampling imposed by such questions restricts
their usefulness for the present purpose.

(c) Conimt, — ^There should be several sections in the test. The
materials tihioughout should be such as to involve a complex of apti-
tude and achievement as the most satisfactory measure. The subject
matter should be rdated particularly to scientific ability instead of to
general academic promise.

Levd of difficulty. — ^It is important that the test be of maximum
^ectivity at and above the critical score. Studies of the results of
the b^t mathematics and science tests now in use indicate that
students who m^e very high scores on such test^; can be expected to
aioceed in scientific courses during the first year of col^e with a high
d^ee of certainly.

Xe) Pre^ratim of the tests. — (1) The test should be prep^ed after
consideration of the specifications recommended by ihe advisory
commttee which would iuclude both scientists and testing specialists.
(2) The t^t material should be pretested on a suitable population
aatj ^ final test made up of the most succe^ul items.

1T4

2. School Record

The school record is important because it is a measure not only
of ability but of the application of that ability in academic work over
aperiod of several years. It has been found to be as useful in predicting
college success as an aptitude test and when combined with the test
score, the combination provides an index that is superior to either
item used alone. The school record not only adds the element of in-
dustriousness but rank-in-class and test score are what might be
d^cribed as automatically compensatory indices. Aptitude t^t
scores are not entirely independent of the home and school background.
Although aptitude more than acMevement is measured, no aptitude
tests are pure” and uninfluenced by previous training. Cons^uently
individuals attending ‘‘good” schools are likely to be somewhat over-
rated by their test scores. For such students, their rank-in-class
score is likely to be an underestimate of their achievement. Boys and
girls from interior schools on the other hand are likely to be xmderrated
by their test scores and overrated by their rank-in-class. The two
indices combined, therefore, provide a fairer basis for screening than
either alone.

The most reliable single measure of ^hool succ^ is rank-in-class.
Marking systems and standards differ from school to school but the
significance of r^tive standing in class rmiains fairly constant.
Pragmatically it has been found to be the best index of school achieve-
ment.

For all candidates who are above the State critical score on the
screeni _ index, complete transcripts of high school records should be
obtained alo: with other information to be us^ by the State com-
mittees in * tile final sdectiom.

3. Candidate's AppUcadon, Indnding an Inmfdory of Actmties and

Interests

The application blank which candidate who the screening
test will be required to fill out will contain (a) the questions con
cerning age, family, schools attended, etc., such as are usually a^ed
on a college admission blank; (6) an extensive inventory of activiti^
and interests specifically prepar^ for this purpose; (c) a statement of
the extracurricular scientij&e activities of the student during the
preceding 2 years.

Inventories of activities and inter^t®, while not yet in as high a
stage of development as intelligence tests, are valuable in indicating
personal and intellectual qualities not measured by tests. Indicatioi^
of such qualities as the individual's ability to get along with others, Ms
^entific interests and motivation, Ms emotional stability may be
bblained from the invento^. These indications should be checked
against the ratings of the principal and teachers on those ^me qualiti^.

An advisory committee composed of men who have specialized in
tMs field of measurement should be appointed to draw up the specifi-
cations for the inventory of activities and interests to be developed by
the staff of the national office.

4. Recommendation of Principal and Teachers Regarding Candidate's

Ability and Personal QmuiUes

Although the principal and teachers are not entirely impartial
persons from whom to receive recommendations, they have a better
comparative basis for making judgments and are more likely to make

175

fair and frank estimates than others whose opinion of the candidates
might be requested. ,

The recommendation blank should be in two parts. ^ ihe first part
would contain a large number of multiple choice questions and rating
scales, the answer to some of which would relate to specific observa-
tions on points of fact, while others would involve judgment of less-
tangible qualities. Each teacher who has^ had the candidate in class
or in extracurricular activities would indicate his or her answer by
initialling the blank. The principal would finally, with an X,
indicate the consensus. The second part of the blank would call for
statements regarding a few particularly important qualities, such as
concrete evidence of originality or creative ability in the field of
lienee.

Part one would yield indications on the same qualities as would be
indicated by the candidate's inventory of activities and interests, so
that the two sets of scores could be considered together and serve as a
check on each other.

The advisory committee charged with the responsibility of preparing
the specifications for the inventory of activities and interests should
also prepare the specifications for the recommendation blank.

ill. Schedule and Procedures (Tentative)

June 1-Oct. 1
Oct. 1

Octw 20

Oct. 20-'Nov. 15

Dec. 1

Dee. 5-Jaii. 10
Jan. 10

Feb. 10

Feb. 10-Mar. 10.
Mar. 20-Apr. 10.

Apr. 10-—-

Apr. 15

Apr. 16—-

Preliminary publicity through newspapers, magazines, and
radio.

Announcement by letter to State departments of education,
superintendents of schools, and principals, giving the
detailed plans of the competitions. School principals
would be sent a return postal card on which to indicate
the number of students in the school who would take the
screening test and the names of the teachers who would
administer it.

Return postal cards due at national office.

- Screening tests and directions for administration shipped
to schools.

Screening tests administered. A detachable portion of the
answer sheet containing the same serial number as the
answer sheet would be turned over to the principal after
the candidate has filled in his name and the name of
the school so that the principal can enter the candidate’s
rank-in-class. (Complete directions for the principal
will be printed on the form.)

Scoring of teste and calculation of composite index for
screening.

Notice to candidates of success on screening test. Letter
to principals of schools having successful candidates with
application and recommendation blanks enclosed. Full
directions will be given the principal for the administra-
tion oi the inventory of aefivities and interests and for
the filling out of the recommendation blank.

^Application and recommendation blanks due at the
national office.

Candidates’ dossiers put in order and shipped to State
committees of selection.

State committees go over applications, gather additional
information (if they wish), and make selections. '

List of men and women selected for schoIars|i%a sent to
national office. i

State committees notify candidates of setection for scholar-
ships.

Public announcement of selection'*"of3cholars.

176

May 1 Successful candidates must notify State comniuttee of

acceptance, of the university or college they wish to
attend and of the science course they wish to pursue.

May 15 State committee notifies appointees of approval of college

and course of study and corresponds with th<®e where
approval is withheld.

May 30 Final revised list of appointees with name of college thej^

will attend and course of study they will pursue sent by
the State committee to national office.

(From this point on, appointees deal directly with national

office,)

Minimum Annual Cost of Selection (Estimated)

Screening: 200,000 candidates at$l $2CK), 000

Final selection: 12,000 candidates:

National office at $5 60, 000

State committees at $2 24, 000

R^earch and experimentation (average) 50, 000

334,000

It is of the utmost importance that adequate funds be allocated for
research on the methods of selection. Although present knowledge
makes it possible to do an eflPective job in selecting youth of scientific
promise, work in this field is still in the early st^e of development.
A strong research program would certainly lead to improvement in the
selection of future scientists and in view of the suggested size of the
program would be a long-run economy.

117

Appendix 5

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PUBUCATION
OF SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Letter of transmittal 179

Members of the Committee 180

Report:

1. Need for lifting restrictions 181

2. Release from military classification 182

3. Agreement witli our Allies on release of information 183

4. Stimulation of publication 183

5. Recommendations 184

lit

LEHER OF TRANSMniAL

Januaby 9, 1945.

Dr. Vannevar Bttsh, HHredor^

Office of Scientific Research and DemLo'pmerd,

1530 P Street JVTF., Washington^ Z). (7.

My Dear Dr, Bxjsh: It is my pleasure to submit herewith the
report of the Committee appointed to assist you in answering the
first question in Pr^ident BoosevelPs letter to you of Novemlm 17,
1944, which was expressed as follows:

First: What can be done, consistent with military security,
and with the prior approval of the military authoriti^, to make
known to the world as soon as possible the eontributions which
have been made during our war effort to scientific knowledge?

“The diffusion of such knowledge ^ould help us to stimulate
new enterprises, provide jobs for our returning servicemen and
other workers, and make possible great strides for the improve-
ment of the national well-c

In preparing the report the members of the committee had the
benefit of discu^ons with a number of persons concerned with the
publication of scientific information. There has been gene^ agre^
ment that one of the primary problems in the field of publication is
the establishment of an agency which, as a general principle, will

Eermit the release of scientific information as soon as it can no lon^r
e used against us in the present war and on terms which wifi be
fair to an concerned. In particular, speed of release should be
accompanied by a mechanism which will lift the restrictions on
publication in a particular field uniformly for all workers ip that
field, regardless of the particular agency of the Government for
which the work might originally have been done. The commttee
feds strongly that this mechanism should be established without
any unnecessary dday.

Sincerdy yours,

. Irvin Stewart,

' • Chairman, Committee on Publication

of Scientijic Information

179

MEMBERS OF THE COMMIHEE

Dr. Irvin Stewart, chairman; director, committee on scientific aids
to learning, National Research Council; executive secretary, Ofiice of
&ientific Research and Development.

Dr. J. P. Baxter III, president, Williams College.,

Dr. Karl T. Compton, president, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology.

Dr. James B. Conant, president. Harvard University.

Dr. A. N. Richards, vice president in charge of medical affairs,
University of Pennsylvania.

Dr. M. A. Tuve, physicist, department of terrestrial magnetism,
Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Mr. CarroU L. Wilson, executive assistant to the director, Office of
Scientific Research and Development.

Mr.^ Cleveland Norcross, secretary, executive assistant to the
executive secretary, Office of Scientific Research and Development.

REPORT

The foUowing report is submitted in answer to jour request for
advice with respect to the first point in President Roosevelt^ letter
to you of November 17, 1944.

1. Need for lifting restrictions

The frontiers of science must be thrown open so that all who have
the ability to explore may advance from the farthest pmtion which
anyone has attained. During the war we have been living to a con-
siderable extent on our sdentffic capital, as scientists who would nor-
maUy be extending the frontiers of knowlec^e have instead devoted
their efforte to the application of our scientmc knowledge to the de-
velopment of new and better equipment^ processes, and materials
for war purposes. A lai^e part of such new scientific discoveri^
as have been made, together with the great amount of information
on the techniques of application, are now classified as confidential or
secret. The restriction incident to war have prevent^ the wide
^read of the kind o# inforinatimi upon which American seieno^
education, ^d industry n«naiy build. Sci^tists eng^ed on war
projects have acquired hew kmmledge in ^)ecific fields, but they have
not been givm access to similar acquisitions by their coiieaguee in
other fields. Thus, while th^e is a fond of new knowledge scattered
among a large numlw of individual scienti3ts, no one of tiiem has
aoc^ to all of it ; md the broad base of scimtific knowledge available
to al scieiitisis has not been ecun^pondingiy extmded. This situa-
tion should be speedily corrected.

During the first y^of the existenceof the Officeof Scientific Eesmrth
and Developm^t a decition was made by the Secretaries of War and
Navy that in the fidds of medical r^^trch, publication of new knowl-
edge should be withheld only if that knowMge gave promise of con-
f^ring military advantage.. Hence it has been possible to publish
most of the newly developed knowledge in the medical field. Several
hundred articles have ^eady been pubEshed in the profe^onai
journals and others are in the proce^ of pubEcation. The amount of
classified medical material has been held to a minimum. It has been
confined largely to limited subjects of immediate battle front im^rt-
ance and to information which might be related to stimtegy. Even
these limited restrictions should be lift^ as soon as miEtary conditions
permit.

Not all of our troops can be returned immediatdy upon the oration
of hostilities. Many men must remain overseas, some in armi^ of
occupation, others awaiting the provision of faciliti^ for their reti^.
Educational facilities must be provided for them during this period.
Very recent techniques developed in our laboratori^ in connection
with the prosecution of war developments can and should be made
available in the Army universities overseas to qualified men in order

181

that thej may thereby be enabled to return to this country with as
modem and advanced approach to some of the subjects of moment as
they would have had if they had remained here during the war, or if
thev had been selected for early return and re-entry into universities
in this countiy. To accomplish this not only must the irformation be
available in printed form, but men familiar with latest developments
should be chosen as instructors in the Army universities.

The returning soldier who wants to pick up his interrupted plans
for a career as a scientist or engineer deserves access to the very latest
developments and techniques. It will be a tragedy for him and for
the countiy if he is trained in the light of the knowledge of 1940 rather
than 1945. Because of the war we have lost several classes of scien-
tists and engineers, both undergraduate and graduate. The gap can
never be entirely filled, and it can be successfully narrowed only if the
cla^s graduating in the immediate postwar years can be trained in
advanced devdopments and techniques. We must overcome, not
aggravate, the effects upon science and upon the country as a whole of
the wartime loss of several classes of scientists.

These considerations merit emphasis in addition to those mentioned
in the President's letter of November 17.

2, Release From Military Classification

The first, and most important, step is to obtain the release of
scientific material from its militax^^ classification as soon as conditions
permit. Basically there is no reason to believe that scientists of other
countries will not in time re-discover everything we now know. A
sounder foundation for our national security rests in a broad dis-
semination of scientific knowledge upon which further advances can
be most readily made than in a policy of restriction which would im-
pede our further advances in the hope that our potential enemies will j
not catch up with us. The Committee believes that, with few excep-^
tions, our national interests require the release of most of our war-
a<^uired scientific information as soon as it is evident that our enemies
will not be able to turn that information against us in the present war.
It further beleves that most of this information can be released with-
out disclosing its embodiments in actual military material and devices.

Research has gone forward under many auspices, the Army, the
Navy;, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the Office
of Scimtific Research and Development, various other Government
depairtiments and many industrial establishments and academie
iastitetions. In many eases th^e have doubtless been independent
dfecoveri^ of the same truth in different places. To permit the
rel^^ of infcMTination from one place and restrict it from another
would not cmly be unfair but would impair tJie morale and efficiency
of scientists who have readily subscribed to tW pqhcy of restriction
dictated by war needs.

The agency chai^^ with the duty of recommending release of
iiif<nnaation from i^taiy classification should be a continuing one
wdl ^t)unded in science ^d technology, which can couple adviee to
the 33^laiy with an ability to obtain prompt decisions. With that
ik mind you have recently proposed the estabjishmeiit wit^ the
National Academy of Sciences of a board to control the release and
pmiiLote puHnmlion of certain scientific infonnation. Its standing
at the apex of the scientific world together with ifs contributions to

the present war qualify the Academy in a unique manner to perform
tMs service. The proposed board with its joint Army, Navy, and
civilian membership should be able to act promptly and intelligently,
ydth full appreciation of both military and civilian implications of
its decisions. ^ It should provide the speed which is essential if delay
is not to nullify a large part of the benefit sought by the release of
newly discovered scientific information. Obviously the board should
be adequately manned to act promptly.

3. Asreement With Our Allies on Release of Information

Some of the information which should be released is po^essed
jointly by our allies and oumelves. Release in this country should
be coordinated with release in other countries where the restriction
has been jointly imposed in both. A central agency such as the
proposed board should be able to handle this normally time-consuming
but important matter with a minimum loss of time and danger of
international friction.

4. Sfimulafion of publication

It is obvious that the contributions to scientific knowledge “made
during the war effort*^ fall into many categories. Much of this
information is now being made public through various media as, for
example, mc^t of the results of medical research. This report is
directed to those contributions to scientific knowledge which are
prevented from being ^hnade known to the world” because of Govern-
ment restrictions. Most of ^his information resulted from work in
which some Govemment agl^G^ wasiinterested and is now under
secuiiiy das^cation. The tw^o dmef obstacles to prompt publication
are: (1) security regulations; (2^ me policy of cognizant agencies in
releasing investigators to publish fr^y. A courageous policy on
the part of administrative officers of Govemment agencies in assisting
and stimulating prompt publication by Govemment scientists as well
as private contractors and their employees as soon as security regu-
latidns are rdaxed will cover point two. The first point, we believe,
can be covered by the creation of the board to control the release and
promote the publication of certain scientific information.

The object is to get the scientific results of war research written by
outstanding experts, completely available, especially to young scien-
tists, at as low a cost to them as is consistent with doing the job well.

In connection with scientific ’war research being performed under
^ntracts of governmental agencies, which has necessitated bringing
together large groups of scientists, the most advantageous time for
preparation of manuscripts may well be during the final months of
the contract, while the scientific staffs are still a^embled and in
possession of all records, but after the pr^ure for production of war
results has begun to relax.

Obviously not all reports will merit publication and distribution.
Where Government-financed research is involved, the cont^ting
agency must make the decision. In every case, however,^ this deci-
sion should be made upon the basis of the public inter^t in the dis-
semination of the information, not upon the presence or absence of
funds to defray the cost of publication and distribution of the report.

The publication plans of the Office of Scientific Research and
Development are being made in accordance with the principles of

1t3

659445 — 45 U

the preceding paragraphs. The effectiveness of these plans, as well
as the publication of other scientific information developed in con-
nection with war researdi, will depend largely upon the speed with
which the proposed Academy board is established and the effectiveness
with which it functions after its establishment. The impetus which
has produced remarkable results in the laboratory and in the field
will be lost if publication is unduly delayed.

5. Recommendations

In specific answer to the first point in the President's letter, there-
fore, your Committee recommends the following:

1. The prompt establishment and adequate staffing within the
National Academy of Sciences of the proposed board to control the
release and promote publication of certain scientific information.
Tliis is essential.

2. The adoption by that board of a liberal policy generally per-
mitting the release of scientific information as soon as it is apparent
that such information cannot be turned against us in the present war.

3. The encouragement of scientists to publish the results of their
investigation in ^'open” fields covered by releases by the board.

4. The stimulation and assistance of investigators to prompt pub-
lication by administrative officers of cognizant Government agencies.

5. The provision of adequate financing for the publication and
distribution of the reports mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

184